Perelmans Argumentation Theory And International Relations Philosophy Essay

Perelmans Argumentation Theory And globalist Relations Philosophy EssayThe usage of this essay is to outline the main nonions of Chaim Perelmans philosophy as presented in The Realm of Rhetoric. Let it be mentioned here that Perelman never intended his book to be a systemological study book, but a concise work on what uprightification of value looks like in practical discourse. Still, his works have been widely applied as a methodological tool in the landing field of outside(a) dealing. From outlining Perelmans philosophy I go forth proceed onto how it has been applied in international relations research. In the furthermost procedure of my essay, I will study how to use Perelmans work in my own research.2. BACKGROUNDIniti completelyy, the Polish-born philosopher Chaim Perelman carried his research in fairness and philosophy along the lines of logical positivism. In 1944, Perelman completed an empiricist study on justice, De La Justice1. In his research he concluded that the applications of the law unceasingly involve value judgments, and as values cannot be subjected to the rules of logic, the foundations of justice must be arbitrary. Perelman found his own conclusions untenable since value judgments atomic number 18 an integral part of all practical reasoning and decision-making. To deny the value judgments would mean denying the rational foundations of philosophy, politics, law and ethics. As a result of his own empiricist study, Perelman rejected his positivism, absorbing influences from the philosophies that provided a rationale for value judgments2. According to him, the usefulness of logical positivism was limited to the applications of pure science3. Regressive philosophies that provide a rationale for value judgments were just as untenable for him because metaphysics self-evident axioms only one perceived error would cause the metaphysical construction and its claims for popular truths to collapse4. Prevalent alternatives, especially t he existential philosophy of Jean-Paul Sartre, do not elicit any sympathy from Perelman either Perelman says that Sartre merely replaces absolutes of metaphysicism with absolute skepticism5.In 1948 Perelman met with Madame Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca, with whom he set on a collaboration project, the purpose of which was to develop a philosophy that avoided the absolutes of both positivism and radical relativism. Their basic question can be expressed as What does justification of values look like in actual, verbal discourse?6In other words, they set on to research non-formal objects.Together with Olbrechts-Tytega, Perelman created a system of magniloquence and argumentation, establish upon Greco-Latin rhetoric, as the foundation for a logic of value judgments. Their multidisciplinary study, Trait de largumentation la nouvelle rhtorique was published in French in 19587. This work, where Perelman and Olbrechts-Tytega create their theory of rhetoric and argumentation, is the basis of Per elmans The Realm of Rhetoric, where he broadens the original work further. Relying heavily on the works of Aristotle, Perelman concludes that instead of aspiring to universal truths, philosophy in reality is to a greater extent concerned with persuading specific audiences to accept its claims. For Perelman, a functioning philosophy (which would induce process and essential aspects of being) should be constructed on probabilities, not universal truths, and it should also be able to carry propositions of values stemming from its reception by particular audiences.83. THE NEW RHETORIC AND THEORY OF ARGUMENTATIONRhetoric and theory of argumentation form the primal core of Perelmans prospect. Perelmans study of argumentation is the study of discursive techniques that induce or increase the minds adherence to the theses presented for its assent9. As Arnold10proposes, Perelmans realm of rhetoric is the entire foundation of argumentative discourse. Perelmans rhetoric is based on the idea that since argumentation aims at securing the adherence of those to whom it is addressed, argumentation is relative to the audience to be influenced11. Thus, rhetoric is an art of impression.3.1. earreach and the set forth of argumentationArgumentation is a person-centered activity it is personal because it starts with the premises that the audience accepts12. As for the audience, Perelman sticks to the twin impressions of a particular audience and a universal audience while every argument is direct to a specific individual or a group, it is up to the speaker to decide what information and data will win the greatest adherence according to an ideal audience13. The aim of all argumentation is to move an audience from an agreement on the premises to an agreement about most conclusion, to modify an audiences convictions through discourse, gain a meeting of minds instead of imposing its will through constraint or condition14. Thus, all argumentation must begin from bases of agree ment adequately accepted by the audience prior to the argument. Perelman differentiates between two categories of bases of agreement the first course of study consist of facts and truths, the second of the values and hierarchies15. Facts and truths here can be understood as supposedly having been accepted by the universal audience, whereas the second category, the values, which can be concrete and abstract, are not universal16. Establishing values as a start point of argumentation is important as they may influence action and define good behavior. Values are usually arranged in hierarchies, for instance the superiority of the just over the useful as a starting point for argumentation an audience may value both but in argument set a preference between the two17.The last argument starting point, to draw the attention of the audience, is creating a presence. Perelman refers to creating and evoking presence as a technique belonging uniquely in the realm of rhetoric, reaching beyond space and time convincing an audience through their imagination.183.2. Techniques of argumentationAs the non-formal argument depends on the adherence of an audience, the orator must see to it that his successive elements of an argument will be accepted or adhered to by the audience. Perelman offers two basic techniques to achieve this firstly, the association through quasi-logical arguments, and appeals to reality secondly responding to incompatible opinions through disassociation of concepts.19Quasi-logical arguments resemble logical, mathematical thinking. However, a quasi-logical argument always presupposes adherence to non-formal theses which alone allow the application of the argument20. An example of this would be a parlamentarian presenting budget figures in the Parliament, with the aim of initiating an additional rescue package for banks. He/she presents actual figures but purports them in a certain way in his argumentation, in grade to win over his/her audience.Associati on through appealing to reality, on the other hand, refers to affirming of a causal tie between phenomena. From this vantage point argumentation can be directed toward the search for causes, the determination of effects, and the evaluation of a fact by its consequences, which in some cases leads to further inquiries21. A simple example of this could be a stripping of a corpse and the consequences that follow this particular action. Other ways of argumentation by appealing to reality include examples, illustrations, models and analogy22.The second technique disassociation of concepts the orator uses when the tenets of an argument are incompatible with accepted opinion. Perelmans view is that when faced with the incompatibilities that ordinary thought encounters, a person tries to resolve it in a theoretically satisfying manner by reestablishing a coherent vision of reality by dissociating the ideas accepted in the start. An example of this dissociation to an appearance vs. reality , a blueprint found directly or indirectly in all dissociations, could be an oar plunged into the water it appears broken but when we touch it, it is straight. Accordingly, appearances have an equivocal status some of them correspond to reality but sometimes they are only a source of an illusion.234. PERELMANS ARGUMENTATION THEORY AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONSFirst and foremost, Perelman was a philosopher, not a theoretician in the field of international relations. Secondly, as far as I have understood it, he never aimed his project on rhetoric and argumentation theory, neither his book The Realm of Rhetoric, to be used as a book of methodology in any academic mark off per se.Anyway, during the past two decades there has been a lot of research in the field of international relations that focus on the impact of the politics of talk, or linguistic practices on world politics. Rhetoric and argumentation theory have been used extensively as a method. However, in my opinion, different learned communities come along to be pursuing different agendas on different forums, and despite the overlaps, complementarities and possible unification of how language matters in politics, seems to be beyond reach.The different forms of talk bargaining, rhetoric, commonplaces, statutory argument, verbal fighting take place in different forums in the sectarian field of international relations. The different forums vary in the degree to which they are public, or rule-governed/institutionalized. The talk of politics also exerts its effects through different mechanisms legitimization, representational force, grafting, framing, persuasion, coercion. The semi policy-making effects of talk are manifold the dissolving agent or the escalation of the conflict, the acceptance of or resistance to authority and domination, the construction and transformation of identities and narratives, etc.24What I would conclude about Perelmans rhetoric and theory of argumentation in the realm of in ternational relations, is that as a method it is passing adaptable and flexible, and it has thus been used extensively. An itemized listing of using Perlmans philosophy as a method in the different studies in international relations, apart from on the general level, as in the previous chapter, would run tens of pages.When trying to find examples of studies in the field of international relations, where Perelmans philosophy had been applied as a method, the most interesting one I stumbled upon was a study by the Viennese researcher Markus Kornprobst, called International Relations as Rhetorical Discipline. Kornprobst proposes that the hostile differences and debates inside the fragmented discipline of international relations are not that irreconcilable and immeasurable at all if we understand the discipline in Perelmanian terms. He proposes, borrowing from Bakhtin and Gadamer that we should understand international relations as a field of overlapping paradigms, which are not herme tically sealed and sectarian. Speechlessness, non-communication inside the discipline can be overcome by uncovering overlaps. Secondly, he argues that this can be applied even to the most irreconcilable epistemological differences (positivism/postpositivism) inside the discipline. His heuristic vehicle for uncovering overlaps is a classification of epistemological stances in Ancient Greece, which in Kornprobsts study starts from the thesis that international relations is a rhetorical discipline based on its Aristotelian truth claims, the modes of reasoning and its manner of disseminating what is taken to be knowledge. Thus, the epistemological differences inside the discipline are actually not irreconcilable at all. Dialogue can develop out of the overlap of the horizons and (re)produce the shared language across horizons on which a scholarly community depends.255. PERELMAN AND MY OWN RESEARCHI have planned to write my Masters thesis on Thailands democratization process and the nati onal identity of Thainess. I am still at the early stages in my thesis. However, I am planning to use an interdisciplinary theoretical framework in my thesis, along the lines of the political thought of Robert J.Cox, Antonio Gramsci, Karl Polanyi and Gianbattista Vico. Let it be mentioned here that I am only beginning to outline the theoretical framework of my thesis, so the method I am going to use is still open.However, my intention is to study how the Western concept of democracy has been implemented in the local Thai context so that the concept of democracy has been assimilated to the strong nation state by the local competing elites. In this process, the local elites have used the concept of democracy as an instrument of order and discipline. This elite liberal democracy has been used to create Western-style projects, of which creating a national identity of Thai-ness -project is a prime example to suppress diverse segments of population. Thus, the liberal democracy is a kind of ideological tool to secure hegemony to control and discipline the population. An important part of the hegemonic process is immersing for instance the civil society, various peoples movements and democracy it into creating teachable citizens, who will act as guardians to the elite and their interest. In the centre of the national identity project in Thailands particular case is the monarchy.My emphasis would be on the socio-cultural interplay between rulers and ruled within state struggles over hegemony leading to different ways along which domination and resistance can be studied. Initially, I thought my emphasis would not be on economics and on the economical analysis, however during the research process my research is directing me more and more towards the international political economy and critical geography.26When it comes to the applicability of Perelmans rhetoric and argumentation theory to my thesis as a method, the argumentative approach would be easily applicable. As footnote here Gramsci offers a very elastic frame of thinking, which calls for interdisciplinarity and open-mindedness just like Perelmans philosophy does27.A good starting point to use Perelman in my own research would be the central notion in Gramscis thinking, namely hegemony. Hegemony is a multilayered concept it operates within the duality force/consent and violence/persuasion that to Gramsci characterizes the nature of power. It acquires concrete structure and specific content particularly during those periods in history in which the people or the masses either form the kingdom for political action or become a force in politics28. According to Gramsci, capitalism maintains control not only through political and economic coercion and force but also ideologically, through a hegemonic culture29. Any class that wishes to dominate in a society, has to move beyond economic-corporate interests, to exert moral and intellectual influence and to make alliances and compromises with dif ferent social forces to create a counter-hegemonic historic bloc30.Applying Perelmans rhetoric and theory of argumentation in analyzing Gramscis notion of hegemony would mean analyzing everyday argumentative discourse in public policy, in my thesis it would involve the dichotomy between the struggle of the junior-grade classes versus the supreme elites. What is the dominant discourse in holding onto power of the different elites and how is it used to solidify the sovereignty of the authoritarian state over different segments of society try for power? What are the aspects of the dominant discourse, political, economical and cultural?As Gramsci sees the society as an organic process, much like the modern physics, he also sees the overriding hegemony as a process on many levels, including the struggle between the authoritarian state and subaltern classes. Thus, the history of the subaltern classes and counterhegemonical forces is bound to be sporadic, depending on the political spa ce that the subaltern classes manage to create for themselves at certain periods of history. What is the public discourse and the argumentative discourse of the subaltern classes like, and what are its implications when the space the subaltern forces create for themselves at these historical periods? How to interpret the talk of politics in my own research?In many respects, Perelmans rhetoric and theory of argumentation offers an extremely interesting and fruitful tool for my own research. However, as I am still writing my own research plan and doing the background research, I will leave the option of which method to use, open.6. CONCLUSIONSIn this essay, I have tried to outline Chaim Perelmans sometimes obscure philosophy on rhetoric and theory of argumentation. Perelmans theory has been widely applied as a methodological tool in the overlapping fields of research in the academic discipline of international relations. When it comes down pat(p) to my own research, I find that Perel mans rhetoric and theory of argumentation is definitely one possible option I can as a methodological tool.7. SOURCES OF REFERENCEAgnew, J. (2001) The New Global Economy. Time-Space Compression, Geopolitics and Uneven Development. Journal of realism Systems Research VII, 2, Fall 2001, 133- 154. . Accessed 15/12/2010.Arnold, C.C. (2008) Introduction. In Perelman, Ch. The Realm of Rhetoric. Notre Dame, IN UND Press, vii-xx.Cox, R. (1987) Production, Power and World Order Social Forces In Making the World History. New York Columbia University Press.Fontana, B. (2005) The Democratic Philosopher. Rhetoric as Hegemony in Gramsci. Italian Culture 23 (2005), 97-123. Accessed 15/12/2010.Gramsci, A. (2007) Selections from the Prison Notebooks. Edited and translated by Q. Hoare and G.N. Smith. London Lawrence and Wishart.Gross, A.J. R.D. Dearin (2003) Chaim Perelman. Albany, N.Y. SUNY Press.Kornprobst, M. (2009) International Relations as Rhetorical Discipline. International Studies Revie w 11(1), 1-22. . Accessed 14/12/2010.Perelman, Ch. (2008) The Realm of Rhetoric. Notre Dame, IN UND Press.Perelman, Ch. L. Olbrechts-Tytega (1969) The Treatise on New Rhetoric and Argumentation. Notre Dame, IN UND Press.The Politics of Talk in International Relations. A Workshop at the Research Centre Transformations of the State.University of Bremen 27-28 July 2010. . Accessed 14.12.2010.