Perelmans Argumentation Theory And International Relations Philosophy Essay

Perelmans Argumentation Theory And globalist Relations Philosophy EssayThe usage of this essay is to outline the main nonions of Chaim Perelmans philosophy as presented in The Realm of Rhetoric. Let it be mentioned here that Perelman never intended his book to be a systemological study book, but a concise work on what uprightification of value looks like in practical discourse. Still, his works have been widely applied as a methodological tool in the landing field of outside(a) dealing. From outlining Perelmans philosophy I go forth proceed onto how it has been applied in international relations research. In the furthermost procedure of my essay, I will study how to use Perelmans work in my own research.2. BACKGROUNDIniti completelyy, the Polish-born philosopher Chaim Perelman carried his research in fairness and philosophy along the lines of logical positivism. In 1944, Perelman completed an empiricist study on justice, De La Justice1. In his research he concluded that the applications of the law unceasingly involve value judgments, and as values cannot be subjected to the rules of logic, the foundations of justice must be arbitrary. Perelman found his own conclusions untenable since value judgments atomic number 18 an integral part of all practical reasoning and decision-making. To deny the value judgments would mean denying the rational foundations of philosophy, politics, law and ethics. As a result of his own empiricist study, Perelman rejected his positivism, absorbing influences from the philosophies that provided a rationale for value judgments2. According to him, the usefulness of logical positivism was limited to the applications of pure science3. Regressive philosophies that provide a rationale for value judgments were just as untenable for him because metaphysics self-evident axioms only one perceived error would cause the metaphysical construction and its claims for popular truths to collapse4. Prevalent alternatives, especially t he existential philosophy of Jean-Paul Sartre, do not elicit any sympathy from Perelman either Perelman says that Sartre merely replaces absolutes of metaphysicism with absolute skepticism5.In 1948 Perelman met with Madame Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca, with whom he set on a collaboration project, the purpose of which was to develop a philosophy that avoided the absolutes of both positivism and radical relativism. Their basic question can be expressed as What does justification of values look like in actual, verbal discourse?6In other words, they set on to research non-formal objects.Together with Olbrechts-Tytega, Perelman created a system of magniloquence and argumentation, establish upon Greco-Latin rhetoric, as the foundation for a logic of value judgments. Their multidisciplinary study, Trait de largumentation la nouvelle rhtorique was published in French in 19587. This work, where Perelman and Olbrechts-Tytega create their theory of rhetoric and argumentation, is the basis of Per elmans The Realm of Rhetoric, where he broadens the original work further. Relying heavily on the works of Aristotle, Perelman concludes that instead of aspiring to universal truths, philosophy in reality is to a greater extent concerned with persuading specific audiences to accept its claims. For Perelman, a functioning philosophy (which would induce process and essential aspects of being) should be constructed on probabilities, not universal truths, and it should also be able to carry propositions of values stemming from its reception by particular audiences.83. THE NEW RHETORIC AND THEORY OF ARGUMENTATIONRhetoric and theory of argumentation form the primal core of Perelmans prospect. Perelmans study of argumentation is the study of discursive techniques that induce or increase the minds adherence to the theses presented for its assent9. As Arnold10proposes, Perelmans realm of rhetoric is the entire foundation of argumentative discourse. Perelmans rhetoric is based on the idea that since argumentation aims at securing the adherence of those to whom it is addressed, argumentation is relative to the audience to be influenced11. Thus, rhetoric is an art of impression.3.1. earreach and the set forth of argumentationArgumentation is a person-centered activity it is personal because it starts with the premises that the audience accepts12. As for the audience, Perelman sticks to the twin impressions of a particular audience and a universal audience while every argument is direct to a specific individual or a group, it is up to the speaker to decide what information and data will win the greatest adherence according to an ideal audience13. The aim of all argumentation is to move an audience from an agreement on the premises to an agreement about most conclusion, to modify an audiences convictions through discourse, gain a meeting of minds instead of imposing its will through constraint or condition14. Thus, all argumentation must begin from bases of agree ment adequately accepted by the audience prior to the argument. Perelman differentiates between two categories of bases of agreement the first course of study consist of facts and truths, the second of the values and hierarchies15. Facts and truths here can be understood as supposedly having been accepted by the universal audience, whereas the second category, the values, which can be concrete and abstract, are not universal16. Establishing values as a start point of argumentation is important as they may influence action and define good behavior. Values are usually arranged in hierarchies, for instance the superiority of the just over the useful as a starting point for argumentation an audience may value both but in argument set a preference between the two17.The last argument starting point, to draw the attention of the audience, is creating a presence. Perelman refers to creating and evoking presence as a technique belonging uniquely in the realm of rhetoric, reaching beyond space and time convincing an audience through their imagination.183.2. Techniques of argumentationAs the non-formal argument depends on the adherence of an audience, the orator must see to it that his successive elements of an argument will be accepted or adhered to by the audience. Perelman offers two basic techniques to achieve this firstly, the association through quasi-logical arguments, and appeals to reality secondly responding to incompatible opinions through disassociation of concepts.19Quasi-logical arguments resemble logical, mathematical thinking. However, a quasi-logical argument always presupposes adherence to non-formal theses which alone allow the application of the argument20. An example of this would be a parlamentarian presenting budget figures in the Parliament, with the aim of initiating an additional rescue package for banks. He/she presents actual figures but purports them in a certain way in his argumentation, in grade to win over his/her audience.Associati on through appealing to reality, on the other hand, refers to affirming of a causal tie between phenomena. From this vantage point argumentation can be directed toward the search for causes, the determination of effects, and the evaluation of a fact by its consequences, which in some cases leads to further inquiries21. A simple example of this could be a stripping of a corpse and the consequences that follow this particular action. Other ways of argumentation by appealing to reality include examples, illustrations, models and analogy22.The second technique disassociation of concepts the orator uses when the tenets of an argument are incompatible with accepted opinion. Perelmans view is that when faced with the incompatibilities that ordinary thought encounters, a person tries to resolve it in a theoretically satisfying manner by reestablishing a coherent vision of reality by dissociating the ideas accepted in the start. An example of this dissociation to an appearance vs. reality , a blueprint found directly or indirectly in all dissociations, could be an oar plunged into the water it appears broken but when we touch it, it is straight. Accordingly, appearances have an equivocal status some of them correspond to reality but sometimes they are only a source of an illusion.234. PERELMANS ARGUMENTATION THEORY AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONSFirst and foremost, Perelman was a philosopher, not a theoretician in the field of international relations. Secondly, as far as I have understood it, he never aimed his project on rhetoric and argumentation theory, neither his book The Realm of Rhetoric, to be used as a book of methodology in any academic mark off per se.Anyway, during the past two decades there has been a lot of research in the field of international relations that focus on the impact of the politics of talk, or linguistic practices on world politics. Rhetoric and argumentation theory have been used extensively as a method. However, in my opinion, different learned communities come along to be pursuing different agendas on different forums, and despite the overlaps, complementarities and possible unification of how language matters in politics, seems to be beyond reach.The different forms of talk bargaining, rhetoric, commonplaces, statutory argument, verbal fighting take place in different forums in the sectarian field of international relations. The different forums vary in the degree to which they are public, or rule-governed/institutionalized. The talk of politics also exerts its effects through different mechanisms legitimization, representational force, grafting, framing, persuasion, coercion. The semi policy-making effects of talk are manifold the dissolving agent or the escalation of the conflict, the acceptance of or resistance to authority and domination, the construction and transformation of identities and narratives, etc.24What I would conclude about Perelmans rhetoric and theory of argumentation in the realm of in ternational relations, is that as a method it is passing adaptable and flexible, and it has thus been used extensively. An itemized listing of using Perlmans philosophy as a method in the different studies in international relations, apart from on the general level, as in the previous chapter, would run tens of pages.When trying to find examples of studies in the field of international relations, where Perelmans philosophy had been applied as a method, the most interesting one I stumbled upon was a study by the Viennese researcher Markus Kornprobst, called International Relations as Rhetorical Discipline. Kornprobst proposes that the hostile differences and debates inside the fragmented discipline of international relations are not that irreconcilable and immeasurable at all if we understand the discipline in Perelmanian terms. He proposes, borrowing from Bakhtin and Gadamer that we should understand international relations as a field of overlapping paradigms, which are not herme tically sealed and sectarian. Speechlessness, non-communication inside the discipline can be overcome by uncovering overlaps. Secondly, he argues that this can be applied even to the most irreconcilable epistemological differences (positivism/postpositivism) inside the discipline. His heuristic vehicle for uncovering overlaps is a classification of epistemological stances in Ancient Greece, which in Kornprobsts study starts from the thesis that international relations is a rhetorical discipline based on its Aristotelian truth claims, the modes of reasoning and its manner of disseminating what is taken to be knowledge. Thus, the epistemological differences inside the discipline are actually not irreconcilable at all. Dialogue can develop out of the overlap of the horizons and (re)produce the shared language across horizons on which a scholarly community depends.255. PERELMAN AND MY OWN RESEARCHI have planned to write my Masters thesis on Thailands democratization process and the nati onal identity of Thainess. I am still at the early stages in my thesis. However, I am planning to use an interdisciplinary theoretical framework in my thesis, along the lines of the political thought of Robert J.Cox, Antonio Gramsci, Karl Polanyi and Gianbattista Vico. Let it be mentioned here that I am only beginning to outline the theoretical framework of my thesis, so the method I am going to use is still open.However, my intention is to study how the Western concept of democracy has been implemented in the local Thai context so that the concept of democracy has been assimilated to the strong nation state by the local competing elites. In this process, the local elites have used the concept of democracy as an instrument of order and discipline. This elite liberal democracy has been used to create Western-style projects, of which creating a national identity of Thai-ness -project is a prime example to suppress diverse segments of population. Thus, the liberal democracy is a kind of ideological tool to secure hegemony to control and discipline the population. An important part of the hegemonic process is immersing for instance the civil society, various peoples movements and democracy it into creating teachable citizens, who will act as guardians to the elite and their interest. In the centre of the national identity project in Thailands particular case is the monarchy.My emphasis would be on the socio-cultural interplay between rulers and ruled within state struggles over hegemony leading to different ways along which domination and resistance can be studied. Initially, I thought my emphasis would not be on economics and on the economical analysis, however during the research process my research is directing me more and more towards the international political economy and critical geography.26When it comes to the applicability of Perelmans rhetoric and argumentation theory to my thesis as a method, the argumentative approach would be easily applicable. As footnote here Gramsci offers a very elastic frame of thinking, which calls for interdisciplinarity and open-mindedness just like Perelmans philosophy does27.A good starting point to use Perelman in my own research would be the central notion in Gramscis thinking, namely hegemony. Hegemony is a multilayered concept it operates within the duality force/consent and violence/persuasion that to Gramsci characterizes the nature of power. It acquires concrete structure and specific content particularly during those periods in history in which the people or the masses either form the kingdom for political action or become a force in politics28. According to Gramsci, capitalism maintains control not only through political and economic coercion and force but also ideologically, through a hegemonic culture29. Any class that wishes to dominate in a society, has to move beyond economic-corporate interests, to exert moral and intellectual influence and to make alliances and compromises with dif ferent social forces to create a counter-hegemonic historic bloc30.Applying Perelmans rhetoric and theory of argumentation in analyzing Gramscis notion of hegemony would mean analyzing everyday argumentative discourse in public policy, in my thesis it would involve the dichotomy between the struggle of the junior-grade classes versus the supreme elites. What is the dominant discourse in holding onto power of the different elites and how is it used to solidify the sovereignty of the authoritarian state over different segments of society try for power? What are the aspects of the dominant discourse, political, economical and cultural?As Gramsci sees the society as an organic process, much like the modern physics, he also sees the overriding hegemony as a process on many levels, including the struggle between the authoritarian state and subaltern classes. Thus, the history of the subaltern classes and counterhegemonical forces is bound to be sporadic, depending on the political spa ce that the subaltern classes manage to create for themselves at certain periods of history. What is the public discourse and the argumentative discourse of the subaltern classes like, and what are its implications when the space the subaltern forces create for themselves at these historical periods? How to interpret the talk of politics in my own research?In many respects, Perelmans rhetoric and theory of argumentation offers an extremely interesting and fruitful tool for my own research. However, as I am still writing my own research plan and doing the background research, I will leave the option of which method to use, open.6. CONCLUSIONSIn this essay, I have tried to outline Chaim Perelmans sometimes obscure philosophy on rhetoric and theory of argumentation. Perelmans theory has been widely applied as a methodological tool in the overlapping fields of research in the academic discipline of international relations. When it comes down pat(p) to my own research, I find that Perel mans rhetoric and theory of argumentation is definitely one possible option I can as a methodological tool.7. SOURCES OF REFERENCEAgnew, J. (2001) The New Global Economy. Time-Space Compression, Geopolitics and Uneven Development. Journal of realism Systems Research VII, 2, Fall 2001, 133- 154. . Accessed 15/12/2010.Arnold, C.C. (2008) Introduction. In Perelman, Ch. The Realm of Rhetoric. Notre Dame, IN UND Press, vii-xx.Cox, R. (1987) Production, Power and World Order Social Forces In Making the World History. New York Columbia University Press.Fontana, B. (2005) The Democratic Philosopher. Rhetoric as Hegemony in Gramsci. Italian Culture 23 (2005), 97-123. Accessed 15/12/2010.Gramsci, A. (2007) Selections from the Prison Notebooks. Edited and translated by Q. Hoare and G.N. Smith. London Lawrence and Wishart.Gross, A.J. R.D. Dearin (2003) Chaim Perelman. Albany, N.Y. SUNY Press.Kornprobst, M. (2009) International Relations as Rhetorical Discipline. International Studies Revie w 11(1), 1-22. . Accessed 14/12/2010.Perelman, Ch. (2008) The Realm of Rhetoric. Notre Dame, IN UND Press.Perelman, Ch. L. Olbrechts-Tytega (1969) The Treatise on New Rhetoric and Argumentation. Notre Dame, IN UND Press.The Politics of Talk in International Relations. A Workshop at the Research Centre Transformations of the State.University of Bremen 27-28 July 2010. . Accessed 14.12.2010.

Investigation of Single Chain Sugar-based Glycolipid

Investigation of Single Chain Sugar-based GlycolipidReview on Investigation of Single Chain Sugar-based Glycolipid Self-Assembly in Lyotropic Phase Using Fluorescence SpectroscopyM.Faisal Khyasudeen*KEYWORDS (Word elbow room BG_Keywords). If you ar submitting your paper to a journal that requires keywords, provide signifi great dealt keywords to aid the reader in literature retrieval. pilfer Glycolipid in lyotropic phase has been widely study due to its nature similar to those in biological membrane. This uncharged amphiphilic molecules has been exampled in cosmeceutical industry as an emulsifier and as nano-carrier in pharmaceutical industry. Some of the reason on its application is be convey of its features much(prenominal) as low toxicity on environment, biodegrad adequate, specific sugar-cell recognition as intumesce as relatively cheap in production. Vesicle varianceation by the private chain glycolipid allow high efficiencies of drug delivery by the in effect(p) encaps ulation of the active existent until it reached the specific target cells. In this report, fluorescence studies victimisation distinct analyze were discussed to understand the st business leader and degree of flexibility of the lipid for its self-assembly. Tryptophan (Trp) with its ester derivatives (Trp-C4 and Trp-C8) atomic number 18 examples of probes to study the glycolipid hydrophilic headspring while pyrene molecules to gain insight of the hydrophobic host. Steady-state fluorescence fate a reducing in polarity gradient from polar field of study to the non-polar domain rooted from sugar head group and hydrocarbon tail respectively. While fluorescence lifetime measurement for the probes uncover an extra in take a hopation such as ability to form deuce disparate rotamer or any heterogeneity arises due to flexibility of lipid self-assembly. Specifically, this review will be emphasized on characterization of glycolipid with probes fraction and how in turn these are rela ted to the nature of self-assembly for the glycolipid.INTRODUCTIONAmphiphiles are molecules that have a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail. Because of this, amphiphiles when mixed with piddle is capable of self-assembly into a wide picture of contrary structures with a variety of properties. Shown in Figure 1 are some examples of such structures 1, 2. They include the lamellar structure, where the amphiphiles self-assemble to add a sheet like structure the micellar phase where the amphiphiles form a spherical structure with a hydrophilic exterior and a hydrophobic internal the hexagonal structure where amphiphiles form micellar cylinders that are stacked in a hexagonal lattice and a whole family of cubic structures, which resembles pipe joints linking cylindrical micellar units. This lyotropic mesomorphism is exhibited by many amphiphiles 3. The amphiphile systems deal transform between these mesophases depending on the relative amphiphiles/ water supply concentrations, salt concentrations, pH, temperature and pressure.Apart from the aesthetics of the various structures, the versatility of some of these amphiphiles structures has also been of great scientific importance and utility. For example, our body is made of 1013 cells that are constructed from complex membranes self-assembled from amphiphilic phospholipids 4. Lipids such as monoolein in its cubic phase has been used to crystallize membrane proteins, olibanum making possible their x-ray diffraction structure determination 5. Similar lipids have also been used for drug delivery purposes 2. An early(a) example is the glycolipids 1, which form minor but integral comp iodinents in the cell membranes of prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and are responsible in maintaining structure integrity in cells.Figure 1. Phase change in the Glycolipid self-assembly by changing the temperature of the systemGlycolipids are one of the examples in large family of glycoconjugates in which the sugar head group is bonde d to hydrocarbon chain. It is an amphiphilic molecule derived from the carbohydrate headgroup whereas the hydrocarbon tail builds up the hydrophobic part of the molecule. The glycolipids can exhibit liquid crystals properties and have mesophase behaviour. The advantages of using sugar-based non-ionic surfactants compared to the usual surfactants because they are highly biodegradable, environmentally friendly, and less toxic 2,3. Besides that, they are also much cheaper, and have diverse biological activity.Figure 2. Example of probe usedAlkyl glycoside has been used for numerous surfactant application. Microemulsion form by these nonionic surfactant will help in dispersing the water and oil in continuos phase. Direct application such as detergent and cleaner has been use including alkylpolyglucoside (APGs) where it is reported that APGs improves the foam properties of the product according to IPP quality standard. In addition, one development of alkyl glycoside which is still in its infancy is on its application as vesicles for drug delivery carrier as reported by Kiwada and co-workers. It is reported that high entrapment efficiencies of the anticancer drug with prolonged in vitro drug released particularly in spleen and liver were shown using alkyl glycoside as nano-carrier. Furtherto a greater extent, it reported by Rauzah.H and coworker, the use of similar vesicle to enhance the drug skin penetration using maltosylated and lactosylated alkyl glycoside.Understanding the various factors that contribute to the stability of these different lipid phase structures will be important in further applications of these fascinating objects. 1 important factor that determines the stability of the various phases in different conditions are the hydrogen bonding networks of the water environment surrounding the amphiphiles hydrophilic headgroup.In this report, fluorescence studies using steady state and time-resolved measurement were discussed in guiding to correlate the behavior of the probes with the local environment of the glycolipid. Columnar phase of an aqueous formulation of the single chain alkyl glycoside such in the example depict in figure 3 were reviewed due to the ability of it to form in wide range of concentration and temperature (cite the phase diagram).Since lipid membrane usually do not possess any intrinsic fluorescence, it is common to used extrinsic associating probe which powerfully sensitive to its surrounding environment. One of the most common membrane probe is tryptophane and pyrene. Trp is used as a local reporter for hydrophilic head and pyrene which is non-polar molecule to probe in hydrophobic region.Figure 3. Example of chemical structure of single chain glycolipid.DISCUSSIONOne of valuable property of fluorescence probe is in their sensitivity towards different polarity gradient. Fluorophore such as trp shows a shift spectrum in steady state measurement sum to change in dielectric constant of solvent. Spectrum shift as in Figure 3 reported by (Idayu paper) for both glycolipid, shows that the trp peak maxima shift towards the blueweed side by decreasing the solvent polarity. This is due to the solvent effect which cause the stabilization of excited state by the higher dielectric constant of solvent molecules. As explained in (prof Lakowicz), normally, fluorophore possess a higher dipole moment in the excited state compared to in the ground state. Thus the solvent dipole can relax to lower the energy of the excited state after the absorption process. The reported unstructured fluorescence is due to the 1La state while the structured fluorescence is reported to be in 1Lb state. The state in 1La is a solvent sensitive state towards the polar nitrogen atom indole group in tryptophan.(1a) Steady-state and lifetime measurement for hydrophilic head using tryptophan with its derivativesSteady state spectrum of tryptophan and its ester derivative (Trp, Trp-C4, and Trp-C8) together with the lipid embedde d were reported by (idayu paper) in n-dodecyl -D-maltoside(MaltoOC12) and octyl -D-glucoside(GlcOC8). From the fluorescence spectrum, it is clear that when the tryptophan and its derivative embedded in lipid shows almost a similar pattern as depict in figure 3. The spectra observed shift to the blue side relative to that in buffer. This indication explain the different local environment senses by tryptophan and its derivatives in the lipid system. By comparing the two spectra, tryptophan molecule shows less polar environment as compared to bulk water. This can be seen across the increasing chain length of the tryptophan ester. receivable to increasing hydrophobic nature of the tryptophan moiety (trp C-4 and Trp C-8), it is pronounced that the tendency of the tryptophan penetration across the membrane will be also increase. Consequently, indole group in tryptophan will be attracted closer to the amphiphilic head of the glycolipid. Correlation between the fluorescence peak of tryptop han in lipid and in solvent shout the different in water profile across the aqueous nanochannel. The observation complement to the result that are reported by Dongping zhong and coworker, showing confined water in aqueous nanochannel can be divided into three distinct time scale(1) 100-150 ps correspond to two layers of well-ordered interfacial water which dynamically is a rigid water molecule. In this region, the solvent network which allow for water molecule to form intermolecular interaction with more than one water molecule were perturbed. This reduced the local polarity senses by the tryptophan ester similar to the peak maximum in 1,4-dioxane which is highly non-polar solvent. (2) 10-15 ps, correspond to quasi-bound water motion. This can be observed similar to the previous case where the tryptophan moiety resembles to those in methanol and ethanol. (3) 1 ps and lower, showing the bulklike near the channel focus where the environment shows the highest polarity similar to that in buffer. Basically the (1) and (2) is important in maintaining the global structure stability of the glycolipid and the flexibility to adapt different structure such in phase diagram. On lifetime of Trp in 10-9 magnitude (1 ns or higher), two different lifetime component is usually correspond to the exhibition of different rotamer (rotational isomer) by the Trp moiety. These result point to a degree of flexibility of the lipid self-assembly that allow the Trp side chain to adapt two different rotamer(1b) Steady tell apart and lifetime measurement for hydrophobic tail using pyrene as probe.Investigation of tail region using pyrene as a probe were reported to be sensible in less polar environment due to the non-polar characteristic of the pyrene. The favour of pyrene can be explained by observing the spectrum shift in different dielectric constant of solvent as reported by (idayu) in figure 6. Solvent such as cyclohexane shows a blue shift as compared to that in buffer. The peak b etween 360nm-450nm indicate formation of monomer by the pyrene while the peak maxima nigh 465nm is due to the formation of excited dimer (or excimer) (cited Lakowich ngan paper lain) even at a very low concentration (0.05mM of pyrene). In a polar condition, it tend to form dimer because of the hydrophobic nature of pyrene which disliked polar solvent and thus forming a cluster to reduce the surface contact with the molecule of the solvent. The spectrum as shown in figure 7 in (idayu paper) shows a complete absent of dimer in the lipid. Pyrene molecule was said to be dispersed in the tail region as monomer and tend to isolate from each other. Additional nurture from the fluorescence spectrum of pyrene is the (I1/I3) ratio which correspond to the vibronic transition of 0-0 band. The harbor for the ratio of peak 1 and 3 indicate local polarity of the environment that the pyrene experienced. In principle, high value of (I1/I3) indicate more polar environment. Some examples for the va lues of (I1/I3) in different solvent and lipid composition were shown in the table 1,Table 1. Value of ratio (IThe result of pyrene in lipid shows an intermediate between the value as in buffer and cyclohexane. However, the ratio shows a closer number towards the buffer solution which further indicate the favorable of pyrene to locate near the lipid head group. This was proved by the simulation worked done by (Prof rauzah. Embedding the tryptophan and pyrene together result in reduction of polarity based on the value dropped by 0.02 as compared with only single component of trp-C8 in lipid. The reduction of polarity in presence of trp-C8 is because of the result in increasing hydrophobicity around the pyrene molecule by the C8 chain in tryptophan. Lifetime measurement were conducted for both MaltoOC12 and GlcOC8 in hexagonal phase and reported in (paper idayu). In both case, pyrene shows two distinct lifetime correspond to short component (0.87 0.97ns) and long component (11 51 ns ) as an indication for the heterogeneity that the pyrene guide in the system . Furthermore, lifetime of MaltoOC12 which is 51 ns shows a higher isolation (caging effect) of pyrene in tail region as compared to GlcOC8 which has decay component of 11 ns. coincidence between the two type of lipid shows the effect of adding Trp-C8 with pyrene in MaltoOC12 (27 ns) is more prominent than in GlcOC8 (11.3 ns) system. In both cases implied the presence of C8 chain in Trp to cause a reduction in the local viscosity of tail region. However, in table 1, it is further observed that, the value for GlcOC8 is actually smaller than MaltoOC12. Since the smaller value of this ratio correspond towards more non-polar environment, it leads to a certain assumption that GlcOC8 were actually interact more with the pyrene due to shorter alkyl chain compared to MaltoOC12 which has more random and move motion in the longer chain.(C8 vs C12). This increased the diffusion of oxygen and hence reduced the lifet ime of pyreneCONCLUSIONWhile it is tempting to cover all the other information about the unique nature of glycolipid self-assembly, this review provide a valuable insight on using fluorescence probes to investigate the local environment around two distinct group which is the hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail of glycolipid. By comparing the fluorescence behavior of probes in solvent and in lipid, we will able to correlate those two in order to discover the local polarity in the lipid. While lifetime measurement in fluorescence uncover the hidden information that the steady-state measurement would not be able to obtain such as heterogeneity, flexibility and etc. These properties are crucial for biological processes such as ability of lipid in allowing different size of molecule to accommodate in the lipid. Understanding molecular self-assembly in microscopic scale and its behavior in different structure and phases will allow us to construct and produce efficient product for indust rial application such as emulsifier and nano-carrier for drug delivery.ASSOCIATED CONTENT(Word Style TE_Supporting_Information). Supporting Information. A brief statement in nonsentence format listing the contents of material supplied as Supporting Information should be included, ending with This material is available free of charge via the Internet at http//pubs.acs.org. For instructions on what should be included in the Supporting Information as well as how to prepare this material for publication, refer to the journals Instructions for composes.AUTHOR INFORMATIONCorresponding Author* (Word Style FA_Corresponding_Author_Footnote). Give contact information for the author(s) to whom balance should be addressed.Present AddressesIf an authors address is different than the one given in the affiliation line, this information may be included here.Author ContributionsThe manuscript was written through contributions of all authors. / All authors have given approval to the final version o f the manuscript. / These authors contributed equally. (match statement to author names with a symbol).ABBREVIATIONSCCR2, CC chemokine receptor 2 CCL2, CC chemokine ligand 2 CCR5, CC chemokine receptor 5 TLC, thin layer chromatography.REFERENCES

Electrical Energy In The Home Engineering Essay

Electrical free cogency In The place Engineering EssayElectricity is an essential energy source for modern living. Disruption to sum or isolation end lead to the development of alternative methods of obtaining this essential energy resource. For galvanizingal energy to be implementful it must be tackle through the use of an electric automobileal duty tour and an energy-converting appliance.As electrical energy became increasingly used as the main cause supply in homes and electrical appliances became an organic part of daily life for some Australians, the dangers associated with electricity became more prominent. Voltages as low as 20 volts can be dangerous to the human physical structure depending on the health of the person and length of time of contact with the accredited. Safety devices in household appliances and within the electric racing sets in the home can forestall electrical injury or assist in reducing the potential for electric shock.This module incr simp licitys students understanding of the history, nature and practice of physics and the applications and uses of physics.Electrical verve in the Home1. Society has become increasingly dependent on electricity over the last 200 yearsDiscuss how the main sources of domesticated energy have changed over timeThe main sources of domestic energy have changed greatly through the years. As population grew each new energy sources gave more power, more wealth, better living conditions and more opportunity for humans.Assess some of the impacts of changes in, and increased access to, sources of energy for a communityBefore whole man power was used, there was hardly any leisure time, but due to industrialization, there has been a lot of mass production which has greatly decrease human effort and giving us more leisure time.Discuss some of the ways in which electricity can be provided in outside locationsSome sources of energy for remote places are-Diesel generators A diesel powered engine dr ive an electrical generatorSolar cells A solar cell converts sunlight directly to electricity which can be stored in batteries for night use.Wind Turbines Generate electricity from the power of the wind. locate data sources, receive, parade and analyse atomic number 16ary information about the differing views of Volta and Galvani about animal and chemical electricity and discuss whether their divers(prenominal) views contributed to increased understanding of electricity.www.wikipedia.orgLuigi Galvani conducted a serial of experiments with animals, get-go with dissected frogs.Galvani carried out a wide ranging series of experiments which found that there were convulsive movements of the frog when two metals were made to touch each new(prenominal) temporary hookup one metal was in contact with a nerve and the other was in contact with a muscle of the frog. Galvani came to the conclusion that the electricity was inherent in the animal itself.According to Galvani, this conclu sion was postureened by an observation that a kind of circuit of a delicate nerve fluid is made from the poise to the muscles when the phenomenon of contractions is produced, similar to the electric circuit which is completed in a Leyden jar(2). The diagram to the left illustrates Galvanis theory (3). Galvani published the results of his experiments in a book called (Commentary on the perfume of Electricity on Muscular Motion).When A slightandro Volta read Galvanis Commentary, notwithstanding, he came to a dissimilar conclusion. Volta focused on the two different kinds of metal used in the rudimentary versions of Galvanis experiments. The diagram to the left shows Voltas theory that the electricity originated in the bimetal arc itself, here drawn in two distinctly different shades, and that the resulting lean of electricity produced the muscular contractions (3). Voltas subsequent experiments led to the development of the voltaic cellsimilar to a modern-day car batteryand to the development of the field of electrochemistry. Much of our current knowledge of chemical reactions can be traced almost directly to the experiments of Galvani and Volta.Electrical Energy in the Home2. One of the main advantages of electricity is that is can be moved with comparative ease from one place to another through electric circuits show the behaviour of electrostatic peaks and the properties of the fields associated with themElectro static charges push or pull each other. there are forces in the midst of themSame charges RepelOpposite Charges AttractField between two charged platesThe forces are best explained by imagining that each electric charge is surrounded by a force field. Any electric charge that is placed within the field will experience a force.By definition the direction of the force field lines is the direction a positive (+VE) charge would move if placed in the field.Define the unit of electric charge as the coulombThe unit of electric charge is the coulomb (C). 1 coulomb of charge is a very large amount, so microcoulombs(uC) are normally used.1(uC)=1 times 10 to the power of -6 CDefine the electric field as a field of force with a field strength equal to the force per unit charge at that point in time = electric field strength (Newton/coulomb) (NC-1) = force (Newton) (N) = electric charge (coulomb) (C)Since force is careful in newtons (N), and charge is in coulombs (C), it follows that the unit of electric field strength is the newton per coulomb (NC to the power of -1).This means if a charge Q experiences an electric force F, wherefore there must be an electric field present, and its strength is F/Q.Define electric current as the rate at which charge flows (coulombs/ second or amperes) under the influence of an electric fieldCurrent is the rate at which charge flows. 1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second stodgy current runs from + to -. The electron movement is in the diametral direction of conventional current.Identify that current can be either direct with the net flow of charge carriers moving in one direction or alternate with the charge carriers moving backwards and forwards periodicallyDirect CurrentIf the electric field is constant, then the charge will flow steadily in one direction. This is called direct current (DC) e.g. Batteries.Alternating CurrentIf a fields keeps reversing its direction, so does the current. The charges will move back and forth. This is called alternating current (AC). Generators produce AC.Describe electric potential diversity ( electric potential) between two points as the change in potential energy per unit charge moving from one point to the other (joules/coulomb or volts)Discuss how potential distinction changes at different points around a DC circuitDecreases as it move around the circuit.Identify the difference between conductors and insulatorsConductor A conductor is something with low resistance, thus current can flow through it easily. Generally metals are candid conduc tors. Silver and Gold are excellent conductors, but we mostly use fuzz and aluminium for electrical wiring, this is because they are nearly as good as conductors and a lot cheaper.Insulator An insulator is mostly a total opposite of a conductor. It has very high resistance, thus which impedes current flow. Example of good insulators includes glass, plastic, and paper. Although their resistance is very high, its all a matter of Ohms Law. If a large affluent voltage is applied, even a good insulator can break down and allow current to flow.Define resistance as the ratio of voltage to current for a particular conductorThe unit of resistance is called the Ohm. The symbol used is the greek letter omiga. How this relates to voltage and current is due to Ohms Law.Describe qualitatively how each of the following affects the movement of electricity through a conductor lengthEverything else being equal, the longer conductor has more resistance, thus essence less conductivity. cross section al areaThe larger the cross-sectional area, the less resistance, thus meaning greater conductivity. temperatureGenerally in metals, the hotter they get, the more resistance they develop, thus meaning increasing conductivity. materialMetals are mostly good conductors while things much(prenominal) as glass and plastic are poor.Present diagrammatic information to pull in the electric field strength and direction between charged repeat plates about and between a positive and negative point charge settle problems and analyse information exploitationPlan, choose equipment for and cause a first- relegate investigation to gather data and use the available evidence to show the kinship between voltage crosswise and current in a DC circuitSolve problems and analyse information applyingPlan, choose equipment for and perform a first-hand investigation to gather data and use the available evidence to show the variations in potential difference between different points around a DC circuit ru n across and process secondary information to identify materials that are commonly used as conductors to provide household electricitywww.wikipedia.comCopper A ductile, malleable, reddish-brown auriferous element that is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity and is widely used for electrical wiring, water piping, and corrosion-resistant parts, either pure or in alloys such as brass and bronze. Atomic number 29 atomic weight 63.54 melting point 1,083C boiling point 2,595C specific gravity 8.96 valence 1, 2.Aluminium (Symbol Al)A silvery-white, ductile metallic element, the most abundant in the earths crust but found only in combination, chiefly in bauxite. Having good conductive and thermal properties, it is used to form many hard, light, corrosion-resistant alloys. Atomic number 13 atomic weight 26.98 melting point 660.2C boiling point 2,467C specific gravity 2.69 valence 3.Electrical Energy in the Home3. Series and parallel circuits serve different purposes in households Identify the difference between series and parallel circuitsSeries circleIn a series circuit all the components are connected in series or connected one after the other, where the current can only take a single path. If 3 light medullas are in a series circuit, the light bulbs are either all on, or all off. They cannot be switched independently. If one bulb burn out the circuit is broken and they all go out.Parallel CircuitsIn a parallel circuit all components are arranged in separate branches of the circuit. Where the current can take multiple paths. If 3 bulbs are arranged in a parallel circuit, at each branch the current divides and flows through one bulb only and each bulb can be switched on/off separately, and if one burns out, the others continue to work.Compare parallel and series circuits in terms of voltage across components and current through themIn series circuits the current is the same throughout the circuit i.e. IT = I1 = I2. Voltages are different across different r esistors, but they correspond up to the for the circuit i.e. VT = V1 + V2.In parallel circuits the voltages are all the same across each resistor i.e. VT = V1 = V2 = V3. Currents are different in each branch but add to the total current i.e. IT = I1 + I2 + I3.Identify uses of ammeters and voltmetersAmmetersAn instrument for the measurement of electric current. The unit of current, the ampere, is the base unit on which rests the International System (SI) definitions of all the electrical units. The direct principle of an ammeter depends on the nature of the current to be measured and the accuracy required. Currents may be broadly classified as direct current (dc), low-frequency alternating current (ac), or radio frequency.VoltmetersAn instrument for the measurement of the electric potential difference between two conductors. Many different kinds of instruments are available to suit of clothes different purposes.Explain wherefore ammeters and voltmeters are connected differently i n a circuitAmmeters measure the current, thus they would have to be placed series with the component you wish to measure current flow through.Voltmeters are placed differently in a circuit as it measures the potential difference across a component and therefore must be placed in parallel with it.Explain why there are different circuits for lighting, heating and other appliances in a houseIn a typical modern home is telegramd to contain a number of separate circuits. Each circuit may contain lights or power outlets and all of them are wired in parallel.The reason why mostly everything is wired in parallel is because it has many advantages, such advantages are that they can be switched on and off independently. If one burns out the other keep going and the total resistance of the parallel circuit is less, and more usable power can be delivered to each light or appliance.Plan, choose equipment or resources for and perform first-hand investigations to gather data and use available evide nce to compare measurements of current and voltage in series and parallel circuits in computer simulations or hands-on equipmentPlan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-hand investigation to construct simple model household circuits using electrical componentsElectrical Energy in the Home4. The amount of power is cerebrate to the rate at which energy is transformedExplain that power is the rate at which energy is transformed from one form to anotherMathematically power = energy divide by time so P = E/t or E = P.tIdentify the relationship between power, potential difference and currentP = VIPower = Voltage x CurrentP = E/tPower = Energy/TimePower is measured in Watts (W).Identify that the total amount of energy used depends on the length of time the current is flowing and can be calculated usingEnergy = VItIf you combine the equation P= VI and P=E/t then it follows that VI=E/t and therefore, E=V.I.tExplain why the kW-hour is used to measure electrical energy consumpt ion rather than the jouleThe reason why the kilowatt-hour which is a unit of energy which is the expenditure of one kilowatt of power for one hour. The reason why this is used instead of joules is because electrical is consumed widely and extensively meaning large amount of consumption, the appropriate measurement for such a large amount of consumption, kilowatt-hour is the most appropriate measurement unit. carry out a first-hand investigation, gather information and use available evidence to demonstrate the relationship between current, voltage and power for a model 6V to 12V electric heating coilSolve problems and analyse information usingP=VIandEnergy = VItQuestion If electricity cots 15c per kWh calculate i) the energy consumed ii) the cost of using a 100W globe and a 1kW radiator for 3 hours.Solutioni) (100 + 1000) - 3 - 60 - 60= 11880000J OR 11.88MJii) 1.1kW - 3 - 0.15 = $0.495Electrical Energy in the Home5. Electric currents also produce magnetized fields and these fields a re used in different devices in the homeDescribe the behaviour of the magnetic poles of except magnets when they are brought close togetherDefine the direction of the magnetic field at a point as the direction of force on a very splendid north magnetic pole when placed at that pointDescribe the magnetic field around pairs of magnetic polesThere is always a North-pole and there is always a South-pole. Magnetic fields are always shown visually as lines of force that give a definite pole at each end of the material where the flux lines are more dense and concentrated. The lines which go to make up a magnetic field showing the direction and intensity are called Lines of Force or more commonly Magnetic menstruate and are given the Greek symbol, Phi () as shown below.Describe the production of a magnetic field by an electric current in a keen current-carrying conductor and describe how the right hand grip rule can determine the direction of current and field linesWhen current is passe d through a conductor, a magnetic field is created around it. The direction of the magnetic field can be found using the right hand rule. Point your right hand thumb in the direction of the current and the direction of your fingers is the direction of the magnetic field.Compare the nature and generation of magnetic fields by solenoids and a bar magnetIn a solenoid the wire is wrapped into a helix or coil, the magnetic field in each loop adds to its neighbours to intensify the field. The magnetic field of a solenoid is exactly the same shape as a bar magnet.Plan, choose equipment or resources for, and perform a first-hand investigation to build an electromagnetPerform a first-hand investigation to observe magnetic fields by mapping lines of force around a bar magnet surrounding a refined DC current-carrying conductor a solenoid present information using and to show the direction of a current and direction of a magnetic fieldIdentify data sources, gather, process and analyse informat ion to explain one application of magnetic fields in household appliancesElectrical Energy in the Home6. Safety devices are important in household circuitsDiscuss the dangers of an electric shock from both a 240 volt AC mains supply and assorted DC voltages, from appliances, on the muscles of the bodyAn electric shock form a 240 volt AC mains supple can kill a person while various DC voltages form appliances for example 50V can disrupt nerve signals and send your muscles into spasms and if the muscle involved in your heart, it can go into fibrillation where it quivers uncontrollably and does not affection blood properly.a potentially lethal situation.Describe the functions of circuit breakers, fuses, earthing, double insulation and other safety devices in the homeA fuse is a diddle piece of wire which is used to break circuits as this has a low melting point and if an excess of current flows through it, it gets hot, which it then melts and thereby breaks the circuit.Circuit break ers on the other hand do the same job as a fuse, but can be re-set after a circuit overload causes them to trip.Earthing is where a power point and most plugs have 3 slots/pins the 3rd is for the earth wire. The earth wire carries no current and does nothing. But, if however a loose wire or faulty insulation allows an appliance to become live with electricity, then the current is conducted safely by the earth wire down into the ground.Double insulation is when two layers of insulation which is used to shield electrical circuits form human contact, so if a fault occurred in small hand-held appliance, even with a earth wire a person can still get shocked.

The Success of a New Product Essay -- Marketing Toilet Seats Retail Co

The Success of a New ProductFeasibility AnalysisIntroductionOur product is a toilet seat that lifts up with the tread of a pedal.The purpose of our report is to test whether or not our product allowbe of success and or test what things are necessary to put in our vocation, J.J.L. Industries.Concept TestingThe Toilet Stepper was tested using a survey that was designed tounderstand the bathroom experiences and habits of all types ofindividuals (Male, female, young, mid-aged, old). When discussing theconcept with the surveyed individuals we found that boilers suit everyonethought it was a good idea, however, some males felt up it was sexistthat they needed to have to pick up the toilet seat and put it downwhen finished. These individuals felt that a woman should have to putdown the toilet seat and lift it back up when they are done with it.(These were generally married couples). small-arm asking some break industryparticipants such as Home Depot and Menards about the idea and sur veythey tended not to comment, stating it was against company policyand/or the boss was overlooking them and they would prefer not to takepart in the survey. The most information we received through them wasthrough the verbal conversation which we will call interviews.Through the interviews we found that the industry participants feltthat it was a good idea and also found it quite humorous.Our Concept Statement was mainly showed to relatives, friends,classmates, and strangers. unluckily the our concept statement wasnot shown to companies/businesses due to the fact that companies couldneither partake in the activity (company policy/work clock time) or theydidnt have time for non-serious business related issues.Overall we learned that just about everyone is picky aboutrestrooms/toilets. We also learned that it is very hard to getinformation from key people when there is no reward or benefit in fork out. Being viewed at as a student doing research rather than abusiness partner, compa ny managers/employees dont seem to have orwant to take the time to help you. If we were to do this again wewould most probably hide the fact that we are students takingintroducing an idea and taking a survey and pretend more like we areactually in the business of selling these Toilet Steppers. Usability TestingWe conducted our u... ... toilet stepper is not really high because of all of thecapital that was given to us by Louies tyro and how inexpensive itis to produce the product. The break-even point in units is 2,280,which is a low number for the year. This means that we would have tosell about 44 units per week to get the $45,000 dollars that the terceowners put into the company at the beginning of the year. The rate ofreturn that we are looking at is about 115% on three ownersinvestments. The rate of return is high, but that is also because thenet income is high, since our costs are low. The rate of return couldchange, of course, depending on what the plans for the company a re inthe future. Works CitedChantanuser, Wichit. Bowled over Toto of Japan Elevates mundaneBathroomFixtures Bangkok Post 27 May 2005The Nearest PerformanceToilets.com 1 Nov 2005http//www.performancetoilets.com/index.asp?PageAction=Custom&ID=7The Toilet Marketplace Supple House Times 1 Nov 2005http//www.supplyht.com/CDA/ArticleInformation/features/BNP_Features_Item/0,5333,107103,00.htmlStratton, Lee. Super Toilet Not Only Rises to Occasion ButRefreshes. The Columbus

Historical Trends at American Colleges and Universities Essay

Historical Trends at American Colleges and UniversitiesThe colonial colleges were among the first colleges created and were ordered under religious auspices. It was believed that an educated ministry was needed to establish Christianity in the New World. Harvard College was established in 1636, followed by Yale, William and Mary, Princeton and King s College later to be called Columbia University and there were also others. The general colonial college broadcast included Latin, Greek, Hebrew, rhetoric, and logic. Later philosophy, metaphysics, ethics and mathematics were added. The argument later arose that colleges for agriculture and mechanical science should be established with support from federal land grants, thence the Morill Act of 1862 was created. This act granted each state 30,000 acres of public land for each senator and representative of Congress and the income from this grant was to support state colleges for verdant and mechanical instruction. Many leading state uni versities today originated as land-grant colleges.It is noted that the largest and most popular higher education institutions is the two-year community college which originated as junior(a) colleges in the late 19th and 20th century.These junior colleges were reorganized into community colleges with the broader function of serving the needs of their communities educational needs. The greatest growth in American higher education came after World War II with the passage of the G.I. Bill in 1944. To help readjust society to peacetime and reintegrate returning process people into domestic life, this bill provided federal funds for veterans for education. Seven million, eight hundred thousand veterans took advantage of this bills assistance to attend practiced schools, colleges and universities. This increased growth in higher education enrollments that has continued through today.Since the 1980s the cost of attending colleges hurl increased rapidly. Rising be of for Medicare, high moods and prisons have caused many states to reduce a percentage of their budget for higher education. Colleges and Universities currently face a very serious challenge1.The need to contain escalating costs so that higher education is affordable for most people.2.The need to maintain high standards of instruction while educating la... ...s assimilationists past.Recent Historical TrendsSome recent historical trends just to list a few are movements toward gender equity, equal educational opportunities for students with disabilities, increased professionalism of education, and reduction of violence in schools.Title IX of the 1972 reproduction Amendments to the Civil Rights Act and the Womens pedagogicsal Equity Act of 1974 prohibited discrimination against women in federally aided education programs. In 1975, Congress passed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, which improved opportunities for a group of children who had previously lacked full access to a quality educati on.War on TerrorismOn folk 11, 2001, foreign terrorists hijacked and deliberately crashed commercial airplanes into the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in Washington D.C. The attack and resulting loss of nearly 6000 lives have changed the way Americans view the world and life in their own country. This was mentioned to show how education is part of our ongoing culture, how schools have responded to crises in the past and how schools can promote antiauthoritarian values and multicultural understanding in a time of crisis.

American Philosophy Essay example -- essays research papers

John Dewey was an American psychologist, philosopher, educator, social critic and political activist. He was born in Burlington, Vermont, on October 20, 1859. Dewey graduated from the University of Vermont in 1879, and received his PhD from Johns Hopkins University in 1884. He started his career at the University of Michigan, teaching there from 1884 to 1888 and 1889-1894, with a one year term at the University of Minnesota in 1888. In 1894 he became the lead of the department of philosophy, psychology, and pedagogy at the University of Chicago. In 1899, John Dewey was elected president of the American Psychological Association, and in 1905 he became president of the American Philosophical Association. Dewey taught at Columbia University from 1905 until he retired in 1930, and occasionally taught as professor emeritus until 1939.During his years at Columbia he traveled the world as a philosopher, social and political theorist, and commandal consultant. Among his major journeys are his lectures in Japan and China from 1919 to 1921, his visit to Turkey in 1924 to recommend educational policy, and a crook of schools in the USSR in 1928. Of course, Dewey never ignored American social issues. He was outspoken on education, domestic and international politics, and numerous social movements. Among the many concerns that attracted Deweys confirm were womens suffrage, progressive education, educators rights, the Humanistic movement, and world peace. Dewey died in New York City on June 1, 1952.In one of John Deweys essay titled What I Believe, he goes in details about his new faith. Dewey explains that this new faith was based around individual come and not with doctrines of authority. In Deweys eyes, he feels that by following a faith of authority volume will soon lose their faith in the power of experience that shapes beliefs and actions. There is a billet in the essay that shows Deweys belief that the new faith is based around experience not authority faith in its newer sense signifies that experience itself is the sole ultimate authority. Dewey also expresses that when people start having faith in a particular religion they believe what others are telling them and not finding real faith and beliefs through their own experiences. So people need to find faith through experiencing life and not just joining a religion because someone told... ...d James pragmatism talks a lot about individuals take inedness through experience and expands on it and talks about gaining association through experience.I enjoyed learning about Emerson that most because he talks a lot about the enormousness of thinking for yourself and not letting people tell you what you should learn and know. I feel that Emerson was right in giving his speeches to college students about not being sucked in the society of following orders, but learning from past and present experiences to be an individual. I feel that the overall material discussed in this course was very i nformative and interesting to learn about. Many of the philosophers discussed the importance of being an individual and doing what you as a person believes is right. But they also discussed issues with education which is a very important topic too. I feel that education is to instructional at times too, and I feel that teachers should allow for their students to learn through experience, because I feel that leaves a bigger impact then uniform instruction. So I really feel that this course taught me a lot about philosophy and a lot about how to be an individual and how to learn through experience.

How to Protect Yourself from Chikan :: Essays Papers

How to Protect Yourself from ChikanAll trains and sub steerings in Tokyo and other cities slightly Tokyo are terribly crowded during rush hour. In addition to the crowds on trains, young female passengers welcome to go through one more trial on a train. They must protect themselves from Chikans, men who touch women on the train. Women who are working or studying in Tokyo have to keep three things in mind when they are on a train how to avoid meeting Chikans, how to protect themselves, and how to protect their friends.First, young women should try not to conduct lines or trains which have a high possibility of meeting Chikans. Needless to say, Chikans seldom appear on trains which are not crowded. Accordingly, the best way to avoid Chikans is to avoid taking crowded trains. However, women have to take crowded trains during rush hour to arrive at their offices or schools on time. Though they cannot choose the time of the trains, they can choose which line they should take. In gener al, women meet Chikans more frequently when they take private lines, the subways, or JR lines. They especially have to be cognisant of some lines which have a bad reputation among young women. For example, the Odakyu line is one of the most crowded trains. We have all kinds of schools, including high-level, low-level, and public schools along the Odakyu line, and many another(prenominal) women, especially female students, track down to meet Chikans on this line. I met ones who were male students of a certain school when I was a high school student. In contrast, many schools along the subways in the center part of Tokyo are high-level or expensive private schools, and women do not meet Chikans very(prenominal) much on these lines. The Inogashira line is also famous among women for Chikans. Many young people use this line to go to Shibuya, which is the most popular place in Tokyo. Some of my friends told me that some men use this line only to touch women. Because of these reasons, I often use other lines to go to Tokyo.Next, many young women tend to put up with Chikans silently when they are on a train alone. However, they should protect themselves from Chikans by following three steps. First, if you think that someone is touching you, gambling your head slowly and look at his hand to make sure that he is really a Chikan.