Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 55

Summary - Essay Example It is argued secondly that hope is caused by merits, and therefore doesn’t qualify as a virtue. However, Aquinas contends that the occurrence of hope in itself is not based on merits but instead on the desire for happiness, which is virtuous. The last stated problem with hope being a virtue is the imperfect nature of hope, explained as a wish for something that is lacking. Aquinas states that while the desire is imperfect, hope is perfection in that it is reflective of faith in God’s rule and influence. The second article questions if eternal happiness is indeed the object of hope. Objections include denial that humans need to hope for eternal happiness since it is a constant state of the soul, examples of hope being for things other than eternal happiness, and the suggestion that hope deals with many difficulties other than eternal happiness. The replies to these issues state that eternal happiness is veiled and thus not experienced as a constant state by humans, prayers should not be for things other than eternal happiness, and all other desires should seem small in comparison to eternal happiness. In article three, Aquinas discusses the possibility of one person wishing for the eternal happiness of another. He argues that this is not possible since hopes for another person are not acts of hope at all, but are instead acts of love. Article four investigates the lawfulness of being hopeful in another person. The author’s position is that hope may be placed in a person as long as it is not believed to be virtuous hope, which is reserved for God. Discussion of the fifth article is very similar to the first. In response to arguments against the nature of hope as a theological virtue, Aquinas relates several examples that are meant to relate hope as being divinely based regardless of its superficial appearance. The distinction of hope from other theological virtues is the topic of article six. It is suggested that this

1.Patient autonomy may indeed be one of the most central ethical Essay Research Paper

Patient Autonomy As One of the Most Central Ethical Principles in Medical Law - Research Paper Example From a moral perspective, Christman posits that â€Å"individual autonomy is an idea that is generally understood to refer to the capacity to be one’s own person, to live one’s life according to reasons and motives that are taken as one’s own and not the product of manipulative or distorting external forces.2† Christman further extrapolates that â€Å"in the western tradition, the view that individual autonomy is a basic and political value is a very much modern development†. Additionally, in terms of the moral rationale for autonomy, Buss claims that â€Å"to be autonomous is to be a law to oneself†3. However, Buss further comments that directly correlated to the concept of autonomy is the scope for lack of accountability if we are not autonomous, which is clearly pertinent to medical consent and liability. In terms of UK law, the notion of consent, therefore, mirrors the ethical concept that individuals have an implied right to self-determination and autonomy. If we consider by analogy the classic statement of Justice Cardozo in the US case of Schloendorff v Society of New York Hospital4 â€Å"every human being of adult years and sound mind has a right to determine what shall be done with his own body; and a surgeon who performs an operation without his patient’s consent commits an assault, for which he is liable in damages†5. Accordingly, the general legal position is that a competent adult will be entitled to reject treatment even if this risks serious injury or death and is not in their best interests. In UK law, the general position is that lack of consent will give rise to liability in the tort of battery and trespass, where a defendant will be liable for all damages resulting from the invasion even if no injury has been caused by the lack of consent6. Academic reasoning propounds that the fundamental purpose of obtaining patient consent to a specified treatment is to protect doctors against committing an actionable tort of battery.

Choose an issue impacting your High School, Community, Country, or the Essay

Choose an issue impacting your High School, Community, Country, or the World and why it is important to you - Essay Example to balance the act by â€Å"affirmative action programs to help blacks, women and other minorities to get better jobs and education," although no clear-cut public opinion is available on â€Å"racial preferences.† Although people have made real progress in eliminating racial discrimination from all walks of life yet we can see that employment opportunities are limited for blacks, housing problems are more severe for belonging to another nation and race. African-Americans of the same qualifications are offered 25 percent less salary than their white counterparts while holding the same high school certificates. Similarly, Latino men earn 37 cents less in a dollar than their white co-workers. Women are also a victim of racial discrimination; they earn just 76.2 percent of what men earn. Discrimination among women employees happens at work places, as African American, Native American and Latino women are offered less than white and Asian American women. Discrimination is happening at national level in all opportunities, which are offered to whites more than to blacks. Other than employment and housing, education is also affected. People commit hate crimes and racial profiling is going without interruption. It is very pathetic that in the time of grief when communities were struck by natural disasters like Hurricane Katrina, the African Americans were made to suffer more than white community people. The road to race based discrimination does not come to an end there. This pervasive color based discrimination was also noticed in relocation of Katrina victims. As per the tests made by the National Fair Housing Alliance, bias treatment was made in the matter of relocation, favoring white people to blacks. Discrimination is also made in rental transactions, as in about 6 out of 10 rental contracts occupants were not favored because of their color. It has been noticed by the Urban Institute in a study that African Americans and Hispanics are not preferred by mortgage lending

Is a Shared Services Model of Human Resources an Effective Way to Essay

Is a Shared Services Model of Human Resources an Effective Way to Deliver HR Services - Essay Example For many organizations, it takes much time and efforts to overcome resistance to change and than, start to implement "a shared services model". Another "con" of the approach is that some organizations do not need centralization of their activities. Very often employees are neglected during the development of "a shared services model", so they feel lack of motivation and lack of training which resulted in failure. "A shared services model" is not only a cost reduction method, but a new system of administration. In changing economic environment, "a shared services model" becomes one of the most widely spread business strategies. The main problem faced by the companies today is that, in some cases, implementation of '"a shared services model" fails. And instead of benefits and cost saving companies have to make additional spending to restore their strong position. The concept of shared services is not new. It was introduced by Ulrich in 1995, but recent years, this concept becomes "a buzz word" (Shared Services, 2005). The main mistake made by some companies is that "a shared services model" is treated as universal "panacea" for managing people and organisations as it is intimately involved with the environment in general. The issue of a "shared services model" is controversial, because it is impossible to develop a single problem solving approach for all types of organisations and management styles. In some cases, "a shared services model" shows a great potential for organisations to save costs and implement quality services. Unfortunately, there are many organisations unable to implement changes connected with and caused by a "shared services model" as well as unable to foresee limitations of this model for their performance. The preliminary research finds out that "a shared services model" has disadvantages and a negative impact on the successful implementation of quality services as organizational structure is often neglected in the operational change. So, the aim of the paper is to examine and analyze disadvantages of "a shared services model" and to determine the main factors of poor implementation of "a shared services model" which caused it to fail. It is important to note that this is not a completely new concept, because it embodies the principles of commercial partnerships. "Organizations in other industry sectors have been using shared service centers for a decade or more to achieve economies of scale and drive greater process consistency, especially in geographically or organizationally dispersed business units" (Harris, 2004). Literature Review In 1995, David Ulrich in his article "Shared services: from vogue to value" (published in Human Resource Planning) described the concept of a "shared services model". Nevertheless, a slogan "the user is the chooser" created by David Ulrich became the core of this model. In 1997, David Ulrich published a book "Human Resource Champion" giving theoretical background of the concept and practical advice for those who want to implement a "shared service model". The limitation of his study is that he does not pay much attention to possible limitations of this model. Another guru of "a shared service model", P. Reilly (2000), gives detailed overview of the concept in his work "HR shared services and the realignment of HR".

Personal Life and Dear Fellow Students Essay Example for Free

Personal Life and Dear Fellow Students Essay Is there anyone out there willing to buy a painting at the cost of his or her eyes†¦? No one, am I right†¦? I am sorry to have chosen a harsh analogy, but in fact, this is what we do when we become mere workaholics. We sacrifice too heavily on something in search of happiness which ultimately turns out to be the very reason for our unhappiness! Respected judges, teachers and my dear fellow students a very good morning to you all. Be it us, the students, our parents or the global workforce, the contemporary life of all of us has become extremely busy. We have developed kind of an object driven and materialistic attitude towards life and living. To the extent that we care only the marks and money! We don’t, or little realize that ceaseless working or studying reduces our efficiency and make our life dull and depressing. Dear fellow students, physical, recreational and relaxation activities are very important, and yet, necessary component of a happy and healthy life. It helps the undeterred growth of our mind and body at the same time adding smile and tenderness to our daily life. Hence, the value of relaxing and having fun is just as significant as the importance of a dedicated working day at office, or a committed day of learning at school. As the saying goes â€Å"All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy† one must not only work hard but also devote equal time to nature the mental and physical aspect of life. Therefore, in essence, to position ourselves as well-formed, energetic and happy individuals in our society we must develop a balance between our work and entertainment, education and play. After all, what is the use of having a huge amount of wealth or knowledge if one doesn’t have a cheerful personality to enjoy them? Is there anyone out there willing to buy a painting at the cost of his or her eyes†¦? No one, am I right†¦? I am sorry to have chosen a harsh analogy, but in fact, this is what we do when we become mere workaholics. We sacrifice too heavily on something in search of happiness which ultimately turns out to be the very reason for our unhappiness! Respected judges, teachers and my dear fellow students a very good morning to you all. Be it us, the students, our parents or the global workforce, the contemporary life of all of us has become extremely busy. We have developed kind of an object driven and materialistic attitude towards life and living. To the extent that we care only the marks and money! We don’t, or little realize that ceaseless working or studying reduces our efficiency and make our life dull and depressing. Dear fellow students, physical, recreational and relaxation activities are very important, and yet, necessary component of a happy and healthy life. It helps the undeterred growth of our mind and body at the same time adding smile and tenderness to our daily life. Hence, the value of relaxing and having fun is just as significant as the importance of a dedicated working day at office, or a committed day of learning at school. As the saying goes â€Å"All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy† one must not only work hard but also devote equal time to nature the mental and physical aspect of life. Therefore, in essence, to position ourselves as well-formed, energetic and happy individuals in our society we must develop a balance between our work and entertainment, education and play. After all, what is the use of having a huge amount of wealth or knowledge if one doesn’t have a cheerful personality to enjoy them? Is there anyone out there willing to buy a painting at the cost of his or her eyes†¦? No one, am I right†¦? I am sorry to have chosen a harsh analogy, but in fact, this is what we do when we become mere workaholics. We sacrifice too heavily on something in search of happiness which ultimately turns out to be the very reason for our unhappiness! Respected judges, teachers and my dear fellow students a very good morning to you all. Be it us, the students, our parents or the global workforce, the contemporary life of all of us has become extremely busy. We have developed kind of an object driven and materialistic attitude towards life and living. To the extent that we care only the marks and money! We don’t, or little realize that ceaseless working or studying reduces our efficiency and make our life dull and depressing. Dear fellow students, physical, recreational and relaxation activities are very important, and yet, necessary component of a happy and healthy life. It helps the undeterred growth of our mind and body at the same time adding smile and tenderness to our daily life. Hence, the value of relaxing and having fun is just as significant as the importance of a dedicated working day at office, or a committed day of learning at school. As the saying goes â€Å"All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy† one must not only work hard but also devote equal time to nature the mental and physical aspect of life. Therefore, in essence, to position ourselves as well-formed, energetic and happy individuals in our society we must develop a balance between our work and entertainment, education and play. After all, what is the use of having a huge amount of wealth or knowledge if one doesn’t have a cheerful personality to enjoy them? Is there anyone out there willing to buy a painting at the cost of his or her eyes†¦? No one, am I right†¦? I am sorry to have chosen a harsh analogy, but in fact, this is what we do when we become mere workaholics. We sacrifice too heavily on something in search of happiness which ultimately turns out to be the very reason for our unhappiness! Respected judges, teachers and my dear fellow students a very good morning to you all. Be it us, the students, our parents or the global workforce, the contemporary life of all of us has become extremely busy. We have developed kind of an object driven and materialistic attitude towards life and living. To the extent that we care only the marks and money! We don’t, or little realize that ceaseless working or studying reduces our efficiency and make our life dull and depressing. Dear fellow students, physical, recreational and relaxation activities are very important, and yet, necessary component of a happy and healthy life. It helps the undeterred growth of our mind and body at the same time adding smile and tenderness to our daily life. Hence, the value of relaxing and having fun is just as significant as the importance of a dedicated working day at office, or a committed day of learning at school. As the saying goes â€Å"All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy† one must not only work hard but also devote equal time to nature the mental and physical aspect of life. Therefore, in essence, to position ourselves as well-formed, energetic and happy individuals in our society we must develop a balance between our work and entertainment, education and play. After all, what is the use of having a huge amount of wealth or knowledge if one doesn’t have a cheerful personality to enjoy them? Is there anyone out there willing to buy a painting at the cost of his or her eyes†¦? No one, am I right†¦? I am sorry to have chosen a harsh analogy, but in fact, this is what we do when we become mere workaholics. We sacrifice too heavily on something in search of happiness which ultimately turns out to be the very reason for our unhappiness! Respected judges, teachers and my dear fellow students a very good morning to you all. Be it us, the students, our parents or the global workforce, the contemporary life of all of us has become extremely busy. We have developed kind of an object driven and materialistic attitude towards life and living. To the extent that we care only the marks and money! We don’t, or little realize that ceaseless working or studying reduces our efficiency and make our life dull and depressing. Dear fellow students, physical, recreational and relaxation activities are very important, and yet, necessary component of a happy and healthy life. It helps the undeterred growth of our mind and body at the same time adding smile and tenderness to our daily life. Hence, the value of relaxing and having fun is just as significant as the importance of a dedicated working day at office, or a committed day of learning at school. As the saying goes â€Å"All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy† one must not only work hard but also devote equal time to nature the mental and physical aspect of life. Therefore, in essence, to position ourselves as well-formed, energetic and happy individuals in our society we must develop a balance between our work and entertainment, education and play. After all, what is the use of having a huge amount of wealth or knowledge if one doesn’t have a cheerful personality to enjoy them? Is there anyone out there willing to buy a painting at the cost of his or her eyes†¦? No one, am I right†¦? I am sorry to have chosen a harsh analogy, but in fact, this is what we do when we become mere workaholics. We sacrifice too heavily on something in search of happiness which ultimately turns out to be the very reason for our unhappiness! Respected judges, teachers and my dear fellow students a very good morning to you all. Be it us, the students, our parents or the global workforce, the contemporary life of all of us has become extremely busy. We have developed kind of an object driven and materialistic attitude towards life and living. To the extent that we care only the marks and money! We don’t, or little realize that ceaseless working or studying reduces our efficiency and make our life dull and depressing. Dear fellow students, physical, recreational and relaxation activities are very important, and yet, necessary component of a happy and healthy life. It helps the undeterred growth of our mind and body at the same time adding smile and tenderness to our daily life. Hence, the value of relaxing and having fun is just as significant as the importance of a dedicated working day at office, or a committed day of learning at school. As the saying goes â€Å"All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy† one must not only work hard but also devote equal time to nature the mental and physical aspect of life. Therefore, in essence, to position ourselves as well-formed, energetic and happy individuals in our society we must develop a balance between our work and entertainment, education and play. After all, what is the use of having a huge amount of wealth or knowledge if one doesn’t have a cheerful personality to enjoy them? Is there anyone out there willing to buy a painting at the cost of his or her eyes†¦? No one, am I right†¦? I am sorry to have chosen a harsh analogy, but in fact, this is what we do when we become mere workaholics. We sacrifice too heavily on something in search of happiness which ultimately turns out to be the very reason for our unhappiness! Respected judges, teachers and my dear fellow students a very good morning to you all. Be it us, the students, our parents or the global workforce, the contemporary life of all of us has become extremely busy. We have developed kind of an object driven and materialistic attitude towards life and living. To the extent that we care only the marks and money! We don’t, or little realize that ceaseless working or studying reduces our efficiency and make our life dull and depressing. Dear fellow students, physical, recreational and relaxation activities are very important, and yet, necessary component of a happy and healthy life. It helps the undeterred growth of our mind and body at the same time adding smile and tenderness to our daily life. Hence, the value of relaxing and having fun is just as significant as the importance of a dedicated working day at office, or a committed day of learning at school. As the saying goes â€Å"All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy† one must not only work hard but also devote equal time to nature the mental and physical aspect of life. Therefore, in essence, to position ourselves as well-formed, energetic and happy individuals in our society we must develop a balance between our work and entertainment, education and play. After all, what is the use of having a huge amount of wealth or knowledge if one doesn’t have a cheerful personality to enjoy them? Is there anyone out there willing to buy a painting at the cost of his or her eyes†¦? No one, am I right†¦? I am sorry to have chosen a harsh analogy, but in fact, this is what we do when we become mere workaholics. We sacrifice too heavily on something in search of happiness which ultimately turns out to be the very reason for our unhappiness! Respected judges, teachers and my dear fellow students a very good morning to you all. Be it us, the students, our parents or the global workforce, the contemporary life of all of us has become extremely busy. We have developed kind of an object driven and materialistic attitude towards life and living. To the extent that we care only the marks and money! We don’t, or little realize that ceaseless working or studying reduces our efficiency and make our life dull and depressing. Dear fellow students, physical, recreational and relaxation activities are very important, and yet, necessary component of a happy and healthy life. It helps the undeterred growth of our mind and body at the same time adding smile and tenderness to our daily life. Hence, the value of relaxing and having fun is just as significant as the importance of a dedicated working day at office, or a committed day of learning at school. As the saying goes â€Å"All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy† one must not only work hard but also devote equal time to nature the mental and physical aspect of life. Therefore, in essence, to position ourselves as well-formed, energetic and happy individuals in our society we must develop a balance between our work and entertainment, education and play. After all, what is the use of having a huge amount of wealth or knowledge if one doesn’t have a cheerful personality to enjoy them? Is there anyone out there willing to buy a painting at the cost of his or her eyes†¦? No one, am I right†¦? I am sorry to have chosen a harsh analogy, but in fact, this is what we do when we become mere workaholics. We sacrifice too heavily on something in search of happiness which ultimately turns out to be the very reason for our unhappiness! Respected judges, teachers and my dear fellow students a very good morning to you all. Be it us, the students, our parents or the global workforce, the contemporary life of all of us has become extremely busy. We have developed kind of an object driven and materialistic attitude towards life and living. To the extent that we care only the marks and money! We don’t, or little realize that ceaseless working or studying reduces our efficiency and make our life dull and depressing. Dear fellow students, physical, recreational and relaxation activities are very important, and yet, necessary component of a happy and healthy life. It helps the undeterred growth of our mind and body at the same time adding smile and tenderness to our daily life. Hence, the value of relaxing and having fun is just as significant as the importance of a dedicated working day at office, or a committed day of learning at school. As the saying goes â€Å"All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy† one must not only work hard but also devote equal time to nature the mental and physical aspect of life. Therefore, in essence, to position ourselves as well-formed, energetic and happy individuals in our society we must develop a balance between our work and entertainment, education and play. After all, what is the use of having a huge amount of wealth or knowledge if one doesn’t have a cheerful personality to enjoy them? Is there anyone out there willing to buy a painting at the cost of his or her eyes†¦? No one, am I right†¦? I am sorry to have chosen a harsh analogy, but in fact, this is what we do when we become mere workaholics. We sacrifice too heavily on something in search of happiness which ultimately turns out to be the very reason for our unhappiness! Respected judges, teachers and my dear fellow students a very good morning to you all. Be it us, the students, our parents or the global workforce, the contemporary life of all of us has become extremely busy. We have developed kind of an object driven and materialistic attitude towards life and living. To the extent that we care only the marks and money! We don’t, or little realize that ceaseless working or studying reduces our efficiency and make our life dull and depressing. Dear fellow students, physical, recreational and relaxation activities are very important, and yet, necessary component of a happy and healthy life. It helps the undeterred growth of our mind and body at the same time adding smile and tenderness to our daily life. Hence, the value of relaxing and having fun is just as significant as the importance of a dedicated working day at office, or a committed day of learning at school. As the saying goes â€Å"All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy† one must not only work hard but also devote equal time to nature the mental and physical aspect of life. Therefore, in essence, to position ourselves as well-formed, energetic and happy individuals in our society we must develop a balance between our work and entertainment, education and play. After all, what is the use of having a huge amount of wealth or knowledge if one doesn’t have a cheerful personality to enjoy them? Is there anyone out there willing to buy a painting at the cost of his or her eyes†¦? No one, am I right†¦? I am sorry to have chosen a harsh analogy, but in fact, this is what we do when we become mere workaholics. We sacrifice too heavily on something in search of happiness which ultimately turns out to be the very reason for our unhappiness! Respected judges, teachers and my dear fellow students a very good morning to you all. Be it us, the students, our parents or the global workforce, the contemporary life of all of us has become extremely busy. We have developed kind of an object driven and materialistic attitude towards life and living. To the extent that we care only the marks and money! We don’t, or little realize that ceaseless working or studying reduces our efficiency and make our life dull and depressing. Dear fellow students, physical, recreational and relaxation activities are very important, and yet, necessary component of a happy and healthy life. It helps the undeterred growth of our mind and body at the same time adding smile and tenderness to our daily life. Hence, the value of relaxing and having fun is just as significant as the importance of a dedicated working day at office, or a committed day of learning at school. As the saying goes â€Å"All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy† one must not only work hard but also devote equal time to nature the mental and physical aspect of life. Therefore, in essence, to position ourselves as well-formed, energetic and happy individuals in our society we must develop a balance between our work and entertainment, education and play. After all, what is the use of having a huge amount of wealth or knowledge if one doesn’t have a cheerful personality to enjoy them? Is there anyone out there willing to buy a painting at the cost of his or her eyes†¦? No one, am I right†¦? I am sorry to have chosen a harsh analogy, but in fact, this is what we do when we become mere workaholics. We sacrifice too heavily on something in search of happiness which ultimately turns out to be the very reason for our unhappiness! Respected judges, teachers and my dear fellow students a very good morning to you all. Be it us, the students, our parents or the global workforce, the contemporary life of all of us has become extremely busy. We have developed kind of an object driven and materialistic attitude towards life and living. To the extent that we care only the marks and money! We don’t, or little realize that ceaseless working or studying reduces our efficiency and make our life dull and depressing. Dear fellow students, physical, recreational and relaxation activities are very important, and yet, necessary component of a happy and healthy life. It helps the undeterred growth of our mind and body at the same time adding smile and tenderness to our daily life. Hence, the value of relaxing and having fun is just as significant as the importance of a dedicated working day at office, or a committed day of learning at school. As the saying goes â€Å"All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy† one must not only work hard but also devote equal time to nature the mental and physical aspect of life. Therefore, in essence, to position ourselves as well-formed, energetic and happy individuals in our society we must develop a balance between our work and entertainment, education and play. After all, what is the use of having a huge amount of wealth or knowledge if one doesn’t have a cheerful personality to enjoy them? Is there anyone out there willing to buy a painting at the cost of his or her eyes†¦? No one, am I right†¦? I am sorry to have chosen a harsh analogy, but in fact, this is what we do when we become mere workaholics. We sacrifice too heavily on something in search of happiness which ultimately turns out to be the very reason for our unhappiness! Respected judges, teachers and my dear fellow students a very good morning to you all. Be it us, the students, our parents or the global workforce, the contemporary life of all of us has become extremely busy. We have developed kind of an object driven and materialistic attitude towards life and living. To the extent that we care only the marks and money! We don’t, or little realize that ceaseless working or studying reduces our efficiency and make our life dull and depressing. Dear fellow students, physical, recreational and relaxation activities are very important, and yet, necessary component of a happy and healthy life. It helps the undeterred growth of our mind and body at the same time adding smile and tenderness to our daily life. Hence, the value of relaxing and having fun is just as significant as the importance of a dedicated working day at office, or a committed day of learning at school. As the saying goes â€Å"All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy† one must not only work hard but also devote equal time to nature the mental and physical aspect of life. Therefore, in essence, to position ourselves as well-formed, energetic and happy individuals in our society we must develop a balance between our work and entertainment, education and play. After all, what is the use of having a huge amount of wealth or knowledge if one doesn’t have a cheerful personality to enjoy them? Is there anyone out there willing to buy a painting at the cost of his or her eyes†¦? No one, am I right†¦? I am sorry to have chosen a harsh analogy, but in fact, this is what we do when we become mere workaholics. We sacrifice too heavily on something in search of happiness which ultimately turns out to be the very reason for our unhappiness! Respected judges, teachers and my dear fellow students a very good morning to you all. Be it us, the students, our parents or the global workforce, the contemporary life of all of us has become extremely busy. We have developed kind of an object driven and materialistic attitude towards life and living. To the extent that we care only the marks and money! We don’t, or little realize that ceaseless working or studying reduces our efficiency and make our life dull and depressing. Dear fellow students, physical, recreational and relaxation activities are very important, and yet, necessary component of a happy and healthy life. It helps the undeterred growth of our mind and body at the same time adding smile and tenderness to our daily life. Hence, the value of relaxing and having fun is just as significant as the importance of a dedicated working day at office, or a committed day of learning at school. As the saying goes â€Å"All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy† one must not only work hard but also devote equal time to nature the mental and physical aspect of life. Therefore, in essence, to position ourselves as well-formed, energetic and happy individuals in our society we must develop a balance between our work and entertainment, education and play. After all, what is the use of having a huge amount of wealth or knowledge if one doesn’t have a cheerful personality to enjoy them? Is there anyone out there willing to buy a painting at the cost of his or her eyes†¦? No one, am I right†¦? I am sorry to have chosen a harsh analogy, but in fact, this is what we do when we become mere workaholics. We sacrifice too heavily on something in search of happiness which ultimately turns out to be the very reason for our unhappiness! Respected judges, teachers and my dear fellow students a very good morning to you all. Be it us, the students, our parents or the global workforce, the contemporary life of all of us has become extremely busy. We have developed kind of an object driven and materialistic attitude towards life and living. To the extent that we care only the marks and money! We don’t, or little realize that ceaseless working or studying reduces our efficiency and make our life dull and depressing. Dear fellow students, physical, recreational and relaxation activities are very important, and yet, necessary component of a happy and healthy life. It helps the undeterred growth of our mind and body at the same time adding smile and tenderness to our daily life. Hence, the value of relaxing and having fun is just as significant as the importance of a dedicated working day at office, or a committed day of learning at school. As the saying goes â€Å"All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy† one must not only work hard but also devote equal time to nature the mental and physical aspect of life. Therefore, in essence, to position ourselves as well-formed, energetic and happy individuals in our society we must develop a balance between our work and entertainment, education and play. After all, what is the use of having a huge amount of wealth or knowledge if one doesn’t have a cheerful personality to enjoy them? Is there anyone out there willing to buy a painting at the cost of his or her eyes†¦? No one, am I right†¦? I am sorry to have chosen a harsh analogy, but in fact, this is what we do when we become mere workaholics. We sacrifice too heavily on something in search of happiness which ultimately turns out to be the very reason for our unhappiness! Respected judges, teachers and my dear fellow students a very good morning to you all. Be it us, the students, our parents or the global workforce, the contemporary life of all of us has become extremely busy. We have developed kind of an object driven and materialistic attitude towards life and living. To the extent that we care only the marks and money! We don’t, or little realize that ceaseless working or studying reduces our efficiency and make our life dull and depressing. Dear fellow students, physical, recreational and relaxation activities are very important, and yet, necessary component of a happy and healthy life. It helps the undeterred growth of our mind and body at the same time adding smile and tenderness to our daily life. Hence, the value of relaxing and having fun is just as significant as the importance of a dedicated working day at office, or a committed day of learning at school. As the saying goes â€Å"All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy† one must not only work hard but also devote equal time to nature the mental and physical aspect of life. Therefore, in essence, to position ourselves as well-formed, energetic and happy individuals in our society we must develop a balance between our work and entertainment, education and play. After all, what is the use of having a huge amount of wealth or knowledge if one doesn’t have a cheerful personality to enjoy them? Is there anyone out there willing to buy a painting at the cost of his or her eyes†¦? No one, am I right†¦? I am sorry to have chosen a harsh analogy, but in fact, this is what we do when we become mere workaholics. We sacrifice too heavily on something in search of happiness which ultimately turns out to be the very reason for our unhappiness! Respected judges, teachers and my dear fellow students a very good morning to you all. Be it us, the students, our parents or the global workforce, the contemporary life of all of us has become extremely busy. We have developed kind of an object driven and materialistic attitude towards life and living. To the extent that we care only the marks and money! We don’t, or little realize that ceaseless working or studying reduces our efficiency and make our life dull and depressing. Dear fellow students, physical, recreational and relaxation activities are very important, and yet, necessary component of a happy and healthy life. It helps the undeterred growth of our mind and body at the same time adding smile and tenderness to our daily life. Hence, the value of relaxing and having fun is just as significant as the importance of a dedicated working day at office, or a committed day of learning at school. As the saying goes â€Å"All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy† one must not only work hard but also devote equal time to nature the mental and physical aspect of life. Therefore, in essence, to position ourselves as well-formed, energetic and happy individuals in our society we must develop a balance between our work and entertainment, education and play. After all, what is the use of having a huge amount of wealth or knowledge if one doesn’t have a cheerful personality to enjoy them? Is there anyone out there willing to buy a painting at the cost of his or her eyes†¦? No one, am I right†¦? I am sorry to have chosen a harsh analogy, but in fact, this is what we do when we become mere workaholics. We sacrifice too heavily on something in search of happiness which ultimately turns out to be the very reason for our unhappiness! Respected judges, teachers and my dear fellow students a very good morning to you all. Be it us, the students, our parents or the global workforce, the contemporary life of all of us has become extremely busy. We have developed kind of an object driven and materialistic attitude towards life and living. To the extent that we care only the marks and money! We don’t, or little realize that ceaseless working or studying reduces our efficiency and make our life dull and depressing. Dear fellow students, physical, recreational and relaxation activities are very important, and yet, necessary component of a happy and healthy life. It helps the undeterred growth of our mind and body at the same time adding smile and tenderness to our daily life. Hence, the value of relaxing and having fun is just as significant as the importance of a dedicated working day at office, or a committed day of learning at school. As the saying goes â€Å"All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy† one must not only work hard but also devote equal time to nature the mental and physical aspect of life. Therefore, in essence, to position ourselves as well-formed, energetic and happy individuals in our society we must develop a balance between our work and entertainment, education and play. After all, what is the use of having a huge amount of wealth or knowledge if one doesn’t have a cheerful personality to enjoy them? Is there anyone out there willing to buy a painting at the cost of his or her eyes†¦? No one, am I right†¦? I am sorry to have chosen a harsh analogy, but in fact, this is what we do when we become mere workaholics. We sacrifice too heavily on something in search of happiness which ultimately turns out to be the very reason for our unhappiness! Respected judges, teachers and my dear fellow students a very good morning to you all. Be it us, the students, our parents or the global workforce, the contemporary life of all of us has become extremely busy. We have developed kind of an object driven and materialistic attitude towards life and living. To the extent that we care only the marks and money! We don’t, or little realize that ceaseless working or studying reduces our efficiency and make our life dull and depressing. Dear fellow students, physical, recreational and relaxation activities are.

Powers of the Sovereign

Powers of the Sovereign 1(a) Powers of the Sovereign Under the (unwritten) constitution of the United Kingdom, all actions of government are undertaken in the name of the Crown. According to Joseph Chitty: â€Å"The rights of sovereignty, or supreme power, are of a legislative and executive nature, and must, under any form of government, be vested exclusively in a body or bodies, distinct from the people at large† [1820, p.2]. The Queen is therefore part of the legislature which consists of the Crown and the Houses of Lords and Commons. Further, while it was established by the Case of Proclamations (1611), the Bill of Rights 1689 and the Case of Prohibitions (1607) that the monarch has no power to make laws or act in a judicial capacity, the entire administration of justice is conducted in the name of the Queen. In addition, much of government is conducted by the exercise of the Royal Prerogative including the power to declare was and enter into treaties with foreign states. The Queen alone has the power to dissolve Parliament, appoint ministers and assent to bills. Therefore it may be concluded that although frequently dismissed as a titular head of state, the Queen continues to exercise considerable power within what is in all other respects a truly parliamentary democracy. 1(b) Concern at the Constitutional Position of the Monarch This dichotomy between the will of the people as expressed through their elected representatives in Parliament and the residual power vested in the Queen who ascend the throne solely on the basis of hereditary entitlement inevitably gives rise to concern as to the potential for misuse of sovereign power. Typically, Queen Victoria retained the view that she had the ability to dissolve Parliament against the customary advice of her ministers. In the Letters of Queen Victoria, 3rd series, Vol II, pp.297-99, Lord Salisbury warned of the potentially disastrous consequences of such a step with the dismissed party then having to â€Å"go to the country† as opponents of the Crown. In reality, constitutional convention dictates that such a step would never be undertaken. It is as unthinkable as the Queen refusing Royal Assent to an Act of Parliament. Similarly, the House of Lords made it clear in Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister of State for Civil Service (1985) the case in which the prerogative power to withdraw trade union rights from employees at GCHQ was challenged (albeit unsuccessfully) that the courts retained the right to review the exercise of prerogative power. Thus it may be concluded that while constitutional concerns must exist in theory as to the manner in which the Queen might exercise her power, the reality is that she regards herself as being prevented by convention from so doing. 2) The European Communities Act 1972 Section 2(1) of the European Communities Act 1972 provides: â€Å"All such rights, powers, liabilities, obligations and restrictions from time to time created or arising under the Treaties†¦are without further enactment to be given legal effect or used in the United Kingdom shall be recognised and available in law†¦[emphasis supplied]. The issue of what will happen if a domestic statute is inconsistent with directly effective Community obligations is specifically addressed by s.2(4): â€Å"†¦any enactment passed or to be passed [by the Westminster Parliament]†¦shall be construed and have effect subject to the foregoing provisions of this section.† Initially, the response of the courts to these provisions was ambivalent. In Felixstowe Dock and Railway Co v British Transport Docks Board (1976), Lord Denning ventured that once a Bill â€Å"is passed by Parliament and becomes a statute, that disposes of all discussion about the Treaty. These courts will then have to abide by statute without regard to the Treaty at all.† However, in McCarthys Ltd v Smith (1979), Lord Denning appeared to retreat from this position: â€Å"In construing our statute, we are entitled to look at the Treaty as an aid to its construction: and even more, not only as an aid but an overriding force.† In Garland v British Rail Engineering Ltd (1983), Lord Diplock expressed the view that anything short of an express statement in a statute that it was intended to be in breach of Community Law would not justify a UK court in finding an inconsistency. However, in Factortame (No.1) (1989) the House of Lords refused to grant interim relief to restrain the operation of the Merchant Shipping Act 1988 on the basis of s.2(4) of the 1972 Act. This was however overturned by the European Court of Justice and led to the decision in Factortame (No.2) (1991) in which Lord Bridge concluded: â€Å"Under the terms of the Act of 1972 it has always been clear that it was the duty of a UK court when delivering final judgment, to override any rule of national law found to be in conflict with any directly enforceable rule of Community law†. In Duke v Reliance Systems Ltd (1988) the House of Lords had to consider whether the different retirement ages for men and women in this country was in breach of the Equal Treatment Directive. It was argued that the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 should be construed so as to conform with the Directive. Lord Templeman argued: â€Å"A British court will always be willing and anxious to conclude that United Kingdom law is consistent with Community law. Where an Act is passed for the purpose of giving effect to an obligation imposed by a directive or other instrument a British Court will seldom encounter ay difficulty in concluding that the language of the Act is effective for the intended purpose.† It may be concluded therefore that despite the initial misgivings described above, the approach of the British courts has been to ensure that European Law will always prevail over inconsistent domestic law by virtue of the operation of the European Communities Act 1972. As will be observed, this has on occasion given rise to a certain degree of mental judicial gymnastics where the statute appears to be inconsistent on its face but the courts have strained to impose an interpretation that will allow at least the pretence of consistency.

Origin Of Cross Cultural Communication English Language Essay

Origin Of Cross Cultural Communication English Language Essay If I have to go and work in Japan, I will have to change and adapt myself to the culture of Japan. But in the course of this adaptation process, I will face many problems, the most important of them being a communication problem. Such communication problems caused by a difference in cultures i.e. mine and Japans, are known as problems in cross cultural communication. Meaning of Cross Cultural Communication Cross cultural communication can be defined as a study of how people belonging to different cultural backgrounds communicate with each other, in ways that are both similar and different. It can also be defined as a study of how people endeavour to communicate across different cultures. Cross cultural communication is also sometimes referred to as inter cultural communication. Origin of cross cultural communication In earlier times, all countries used to just strive for self sufficiency. There was no concept of trading between countries and even if there was some trading, it was done by the traders at an individual level. But advancements in economic growth and technological developments led to breaking down of cultural barriers as businesses looked for ways to expand and started seeking new markets. And it was this need for expansion that gave birth to globalisation. Globalisation refers to integrating our countrys economy with the world economy. In layman terms, globalisation means combining the markets of the different countries and making the world one huge market. Thus, people of different countries have access to products from all over the world. Globalisation was very beneficial for companies also as it gave them new markets to sell their products. Companies opened their branches in other countries. However, with the process of globalisation leading to an increase in global trade, it was impossible to avoid the meeting, conflict and blending of the different cultures. In any organisation, irrespective of what it does (construction, public relations, transportation, production and distribution of beverages, etc.), communication is the most essential ingredient for the survival of the business. People from different cultures found it difficult to communicate not only because of the language barriers but also because of the difference in their cultural styles. e.g. in independent cultures like Western Europe, USA and Canada, an independent figure of self is dominant. People think of themselves as being independent and distinct from others as well as from the environment. However, in interdependent cultures like Southern Europe, Asian and Latin American countries, an interdependent figure of self is dominant. People are more dependent on each other and the environment. There is a greater emphasis on the inter relatedness of the self to others and to the environment. The self is meaningful primarily in the context of social relationships, duties and roles. In some ways, cultural difference is a bigger challenge than the language barrier. Culture can be defined as a way of life of a group of people, their values, beliefs, behaviours, the symbols that they accept unconsciously and that are passed along from one generation to the next. Culture provides people with a way of thinking, it tells them how to see, hear and interpret different words. Thus, even though two people may be speaking the same language, the words used in it may have different meanings for them both. With the cultural differences making their presence felt and the need for translators rising, the chances of the occurrence of miscommunication also increase. Thus, the need to understand these cultural difference has become even greater. Only after crossing these cultural bridges can we hope to achieve effective communication. Hence, there is a need to study cross cultural communication. Need for Cross Cultural Communication Communication is a necessity anywhere and everywhere. The need for cross cultural communication is increasing every day. Given below are some reasons as to why cross cultural communication is so important nowadays Exchange of ideas Communication, as we all know, is the process of exchange of ideas and information between two or more people. Cross cultural communication just adds culture to communication. People from different cultures need a way to communicate their ideas, feelings, etc. to each other. Cross cultural communication provides a means for effective communication between people belonging to different cultures. The Same words with different meanings As mentioned above, two people might be speaking the same language but the meaning of the words might be different to both of them. e.g. in English, the word Mansion means a big house or a castle but in Japanese mansion means an apartment or a condominium. Also, Claim in English means to state something but in Japanese, it means to complain. So, when a Japanese says that he wants to make a claim, it does not mean he wants to make a statement but that he wants to make a complaint about something. Thus, an understanding of the different cultures is necessary to achieve effective cross cultural communication. Avoid Miscommunication It is imperative to learn the correct meanings of the different words and to understand the different cultures so as to avoid miscommunication of any kind. Miscommunication can cause many problems and conflicts between two communicating parties. e.g. In English, gift means present but in German, gift means Poison. So, if we say that we are giving a gift to a German, he might get very offended thinking that we are giving him poison. So, for effective communication, it is necessary to have an understanding of the languages of the different cultures. Make people feel valued When we show people that we know and understand their cultures, they are immediately impressed and feel valued. They understand that we have made an effort to understand their culture. This encourages them to try and return the favour by trying to understand our culture. e.g. In India, people greet each other by folding their hands and saying Namaste, a Hindi word which people use to greet the soul of the other person. On the other hand, the Japanese greet each other by bowing to each other as a sign of giving respect to others. Another example of diversity in cultures is that of the Navajo people. They live in Latin America. To them, touching someone else without their permission means we are insulting the person. Thus, they do not like to shake hands when greeting other people but instead just fold their hands and greet others. But in countries like UK and USA, shaking hands is considered to be totally normal and is done to greet everyone. Interdisciplinary Orientation of Cross Cultural Communication The main aim of cross cultural communication is to bring together relatively unrelated areas like cultural anthropology and established areas of communication. Its core function is to establish an understanding of how people from different cultures can communicate effectively with each other. It also tries to give some guidelines, by following which people can achieve effectiveness in cross cultural communication. Cross cultural communication, like many other scholarly fields, is composed of parts of various other fields. Some of these fields are psychology, business communication, study of different cultures, sociology and anthropology. The field of cross cultural communication has also moved toward the treatment of relations belonging to different ethnicities and the study of strategies used by co-cultural populations to communicate with each other i.e. communication strategies that are used to communicate with the mainstream populations. The study of languages other than our native language not only helps us understand what we have in common with each other as human beings but also assists us in understanding the diversity (and the reasons for it) which underlies not only the languages that we use, but also the means of organizing and constructing knowledge. Also it shows us the many, different realities in which we all live and interact with each other. This understanding has profound implications on the development of a critical awareness of our social relationships. Understanding these social relationships and the way other cultures work lays the groundwork of successful business efforts in this age of globalisation. Language socialization can be defined as the investigation of how language both creates and hypothecates anew, social relations in the context of culture. It is imperative that the speaker understands the grammar of the language that he is speaking, as well as how elements of the language situated in a socially acceptable manner in order to achieve competence in communication. Human experience derives relevance from the culture in which it is obtained, so elements of language also derive their relevance from culture. An individual must make a careful consideration of the semantics and the evaluation of sign language so as to compare the various cross-cultural standards of communication. However, there are several potential problems that are faced by people while participating in language socialization. Sometimes people can indulge in over-generalization i.e. label cultures with subjective and stereotypical characterizations. Another primary concern with making a record of alternative cultural norms is that no social actor uses language in the exact way as has been recorded (as per the normative characterizations). Cross cultural communication provides a methodology for studying how an individual uses language and other semantic activity to use and create new models of conduct and how this varies from the already recorded / documented cultural norms. Aspects of Cross Cultural Communication The aspects o cross cultural communication educate us about the various parameters that may be perceived differently by people belonging to different cultures. By keeping these parameters in mind, the chances of miscommunication can be minimised. These parameters are as follows :- Context Context is the most important dimension of culture. It is also very difficult to define. It was Edward T. Hall, an anthropologist, who first put forth the ideology of context in culture. He defined context as the stimuli or environment or the ambience surrounding it. Depending on how much a culture relies on these three (stimuli, environment, ambience surrounding it), he divided this context into two main groups :- Low Context Cultures High Context Cultures Low Context Cultures These assume that the individuals must be given a lot of background information as they know very little about what is told or being told to them. High Context Cultures These assume that the individual has to be given very little background information as he already possesses adequate knowledge about the subject. Non Verbal, Oral and Written The major factor behind improvement of cross cultural communication is paying more attention to specific areas of communication so as to enhance the effectiveness of the same. These specific areas have been broken down into three sub categories Non-Verbal Contact Oral Contact Written Contact Non-Verbal Contact This includes eye contact, facial expressions, use of space, etc Communication through body movement is known as Kinesics. The two most prominent ways of communication through Kinesics are facial expressions and eye contact. Facial expressions are a language unto themselves and are universal to all cultures. Our facial expressions can tell other people whether we are happy, sad, confused, etc. Irrespective of the culture, the facial expressions of a person for expressing these emotions, essentially remains the same. Eye contact, on the other hand, plays a key role in setting the tone between two individuals. Its meaning differs greatly in different cultures. In Western Europe and USA, eye contact conveys honesty and interest in what the other person is saying. People who avoid eye contact while speaking are thought to be lying, withholding information or lacking in self confidence. However, in Africa, Middle East and Asian counties, maintaining eye contact is interpreted as being disrespectful and / or challenging ones authority. People who only briefly make eye contact are thought to be courteous and respectful. Non verbal communication is also composed of our gestures. These gestures can be divided into five sub categories :- Emblems Illustrators Regulators Affect Displays Adaptors Emblems These refer to sign language (such as the Thumbs Up sign which is one of the most recognized symbols for all is good). Illustrators These mimic what we speak (e.g. showing how much time is left by holding up a particular number of fingers) and are sometimes used in place of verbal speech. Emblems and illustrators are the easiest ways of non verbal communication. Regulators These provide a way of conveying meaning through gestures (e.g. raising up ones hand indicates that one has some doubt(s) about what has just been said). These are more complicated than emblems and illustrators since the same regulator can have different meanings in different cultures (e.g. making a circle with ones hand in UK means OK but in Japan, this gesture is used as a symbol for money, in France, it conveys the notion of worthlessness and in Brazil, it is taken as an insult. http://www.1000ventures.com/design_elements/selfmade/ccd_example_ok-gesture.gif Affect Displays These reveal emotions such as happiness (a smile) or sadness (crying, lips trembling), etc. Adaptors These are more subtle e.g. yawning when we are bored or clenching our fists when we are angry. Adapters and affect displays are the two modes of non verbal communication over which the individual has very little control. The last non verbal type of communication is proxemics. It involves communicating by making use of the space around us. Hall identified three kinds of space :- Feature Fixed Space Semi Fixed Feature Space Informal Space Feature Fixed Space It deals with how various cultures make use of their space on a large scale e.g. by making buildings, parks, etc. Semi Fixed Feature Space It deals with how people belonging to different cultures arrange the space inside said buildings, e.g. the placement of plants, chairs, desks, etc. Informal Space It is the space that is most important to us e.g. how close people sit to one another, office space, etc. A production line worker has to make an appointment to visit his supervisor, however, the supervisor can come and meet the production line workers as and when he wishes. Oral Communication It is easier to learn than non verbal communication. The only problem in oral communication is Para Language i.e. how something is said. Even though words should convey the same meaning to everybody, the rate, volume and emphasis placed on them can completely change their meaning. e.g. In the sentence, I would like to help you, by placing emphasis on the words I, Like, Help and You one at a time while saying the same phrase conveys a different meaning of this same phrase all four times. Written Communication It is usually easier to adapt, learn and deal with in the business world (as compared to non verbal communication) because of the simple fact that each language is unique in itself. e.g. hair and hare are pronounced in the same way but written in a different way and also have very different meanings. Another example can be of the word minute in the sentence The button was so minute that it was a minute before I found it. Thus, written communication also must be done with great care lest we convey the wrong meaning to the recipient of the message. CHALLENGES OF CROSS CULTURAL COMMUNICATION International businesses are, nowadays, facing new obstacles in their internal communication structures because of major reforms brought about in the internal communication structure through acquisitions, mergers, internationalization, downsizing, etc. Lack of investment in teaching language socialisation and cross cultural communication training often leads to deficiency in the internal cohesion of the company. Some of the by products of poor cross cultural communication are poor working relations, poor retention of staff, loss of customers, internal power struggles, low productivity, lack of co operation and loss of competitive edge by the company. Cross cultural communications consultants work with international companies to minimise in order to maximise cross cultural awareness and the consequences thereof among the employees. Given below are some hurdles to cross cultural communication 1) Lack of Communication Even though lack of communication seems to be a very obvious problem in miscommunication, it also continues to be a major reason behind poor cross cultural communication. Lack of communication with staff refers not only to lack of spoken dialogue but also to access to information. e.g. Some ways of withholding information from the staff are not informing the staff about actions and decisions that will affect their roles, not giving feedback (positive or negative), failure to properly communicate to the staff what is expected of them, etc. This eventually results in alienating the staff base which feels divided from its superiors and the management. If managers are too selective about the information that they provide to the staff, the staff starts feeling suspicious and jealous. This in turn, leads to internal strife rather than the cohesion that the managers were striving for. A management which foes not interact physically with its staff shows that it is not interested in its staff and that it does not trust or respect the staff. In the West, it has been observed that usually there is only downward communication. The staff reports to the managers and the managers report to senior managers and so on. Ideally, communication should br both ways (upward as well as downward). The seniors should take feedback from their subordinates. In the absence of such a system, the subordinates start feeling indifferent, estranged and sometimes even belligerent. Lack of communication is unhealthy, irrespective of what form or situation it may occur in. Managers and companies must have awareness of why, what, to whom and how they are communicating. 2) Language Language can be an obstacle to communication in two ways a) Use of inappropriate language Language carries with it imperceptible messages and meanings transmitted through stress, tone and vocabulary. The wrong use of words and / or emotions hidden behind phrases can send messages that affect the attitude, confidence and self-perception of the staff. Use of critical language gives rise to low self confidence of the staff (at the individual and group level) and poor interpersonal relationships whereas supportive tones and language have the opposite effect. Body language of the speaker and the listener must also be appropriate. Body language can be said to be composed of facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, etc.Facial expressions are a language unto themselves and are universal to all cultures. Our facial expressions can tell other people whether we are happy, sad, confused, etc. Irrespective of the culture, the facial expressions of a person for expressing these emotions, essentially remains the same. Eye contact, on the other hand, plays a key role in setting the tone between two individuals. Its meaning differs greatly in different cultures. In Western Europe and USA, eye contact conveys honesty and interest in what the other person is saying. People who avoid eye contact while speaking are thought to be lying, withholding information or lacking in self confidence. However, in Africa, Middle East and Asian counties, maintaining eye contact is interpreted as being disrespectful and / or challenging ones authority. People who only briefly make eye contact are thought to be courteous and respectful. b) Foreign Languages These days, companies may have indigenous speakers of over 50 different languages all under one roof.   It is important, in such cases to establish one common language for the entire office, whether it be French, r Spanish or English. It is not necessary that this common language must be some language that is common to everyone; it can be the language of the country in which the company is operating or the language spoken and understood by the majority of the employees. In the absence of such a language, everyone will keep speaking but no one will understand anything, leading to chaos in the company. Once the common language is established, all the employees should only converse in this language. This avoids exclusion of staff who cannot understand other languages. The company should also ensure that all its employees are able to converse in the common language. Language tuition should be regarded as a necessity, not a luxury. Culture International businesses equipped with a highly diverse workforce in terms of cultural background and nationality face challenges due to the differences in business practices, ethics, belief system, values, expectations, behaviour and etiquette. Consider the following conversation A soda marketer was glumly sitting at the bar. His friend approaches and asks, Why so serious? He replies, I created this left to right comic strip for a campaign. It showed a famished man crawling across the desert who finds a bottle of soda, chugs it down, and walks away with a cheerful smile. Sales tanked after it ran in the Middle East. Why? Everyone read it from right to left! Now, normally this would make a very good joke. But this is an excellent example of how culture can affect communication. Had the soda marketer been aware that people in the Middle East read from right to left, he could have planned the advertisement accordingly and his business would not have suffered. Cross cultural differences can have a negative impact on a business in a number of ways, whether it may be on team cohesion or on the productivity of the staff. In such multicultural companies, objective help may be needed through a cross cultural consultant who will be able to show individuals and teams how to manage communication and work together in a more productive and cohesive manner. 4) Company Culture Company culture refers to the internal culture of a firm in terms of how it is managed. e.g. Does it view its different departments i.e. Administration, Human Resources, Sales, Production, Accounts, etc. as open systems or closed systems? A closed system is one in which there is a total lack of synergy between the sales and the production department due to the absence of communication lines and structure between them both. A consequence of such compartmentalization is that managers of the various departments have a tendency to become territorial. This is eventually harmful for the organization as its objectives can only be achieved if these departments work together as one unit rather than start functioning as separate, individual units. Thus, it is vital that team building, team spirit and team work are encouraged so as to create open systems. Such measures are particularly valid in mergers and joint ventures wherein co operation between two or more companies requires their total commitment to an open system. Understandably most companies are mainly focused on the strategic and financial side of company operations. International businesses are now realising that many of their business problems have their roots in man management and communication. Stereotyping . It refers to putting someone or something in a certain category based on our own and / others experiences and opinions. Stereotyping has a negative impact on communication. It inhibits communication as it alters our perception and results in us making pre-selected interpretations thus hindering an objective understanding of the communication by us. Perception of information Another challenge of cross cultural communication is how the communication is perceived. In this case, attention is mainly given to body language. Different cultures have different ways of interpreting body language. e.g. in the Chinese culture, waving at a person is intended to indicate to that person to come where you are unlike in the western culture where it is used as a gesture to say goodbye. Such a small gesture can result in miscommunication due to the cross cultural differences. Thus, such gestures should be carefully observed and learned by the speaker as well as the listener. Behavioural Constraints Each culture has its own set of laws on proper behaviour that affect both verbal and non verbal communication. Such behavioural constraints include making eye contact. Where, in some cultures (Asian, African, etc.), it is interpreted as a lack of respect especially when addressing the elderly, in others (like that of USA, UK) it shows that the person is honest and has confidence in himself. Other behavioural constraints include how close one stands to another person while talking to him / her, the tonal variation, etc. All these differences in behavioural constraints make cross cultural communication difficult and ineffective. GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE CROSS CULTURAL COMMUNICATION Strategies to make cross- cultural communication effective are given below :- 1) Flexibility Flexibility in character is an important strategy to make cross cultural communication effective. An individual has to deal with different people belonging to many different cultures. One should not be rigid and stick to ones normal character, way of speech, etc. The individual has to change according to the culture he is working in so as to make the communication more effective. One should be flexible while communicating, i.e. people should change their way of speech and behaviour according to the character of other party and make the other party join in on the conversation so as to facilitate a smooth flow of the same. This will also help in creating a cool and friendly atmosphere between communicating parties. If an individual is flexible, he can change / adapt according to the situation. 2) Honesty This is very much needed in cross cultural communication. Being honest will make the communication better and successful. If one person is honest and the other person is not, the communication will not proceed in a smooth manner. Honest communication also strengthens the relationship between the communicating parties, especially if they belong to different cultures. While participating in cross cultural communication, both parties should be honest in what they are saying, otherwise they will not get the desired result. An honest communication can result in a perfect deal for both the parties involved in the communication. If an important business matter is being discussed, honesty shown by both parties will go a long way in making some important and successful decisions and deals. 3) Listening Listening skills are an important part of cross cultural communication. A person who has low concentration and poor listening skills will be unable to achieve effectiveness in cross cultural communication. Cross cultural communication involves dealing with people belonging to different cultures wherein importance is given only to the communication process without engaging in any other activities. An individual should be calm and quiet while listening to what the other person is saying so as to facilitate a smooth communication process. 4) Mutual Respect Respecting each other is an important strategy of making make cross cultural communication effective. Respect should be given in all talks and forms in cross cultural communication. Both parties should give equal respect, in all their talks and opinions, to each other. In case of someone having a different opinion, the individual should respect the other persons opinion even though it might not agree with his own opinion. An individual should not be rigid about his opinions and should keep an open mind and give equal opportunity to the other party also to give their opinions on the subject and if an agreement is reached, a decision can be made, thus making the communication effective between the parties belonging to different cultures. 5) Understanding each other While communicating with people belonging to different cultures, understanding each other is an important skill to make cross cultural communication effective. Asking questions helps in getting a better idea and understand what the other person is saying.. A better understanding of the situation, the other party, their opinions and suggestions will give more confidence in tackling the problem and finding its solution. Both communicating parties should have skills in recognizing complexity of the talks and decisions. This will help in a better settlement of the matter and that too, without any conflicts. 6) Building Self Awareness and Confidence Both parties should be self aware for making cross cultural communication a success. Self awareness can only be developed by dealing with people belonging to different cultures and backgrounds. People should think twice before making any statement or decision. Self-awareness can be developed by asking others questions about oneself and getting the answers to the same. This helps us in getting a better idea about ourselves. Self-awareness also increases confidence in making cross cultural communication effective and successful. 7) Avoid Stereotyping Stereotyping inhibits communication. Individual should keep an open mind while communicating with other people. He should not entertain any pre conceived notions about the other party as these will cloud his judgement and decisions and lead to conflicts. Keeping an open mind will help the individual to think objectively and make accurate decisions.